Class. 

Book jA/t/^ 

6opyiiglit>l" 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 





ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL GEMS 

I. Steatite, from Crete; two lions with forefeet on a pedestal; above, a sun. 2. Sardonyx 
from Elis; a goddess holding up a goat by the horns. 3. Rock crystal; a bearded Triton. 
4. Carnelian; a youth playing a trigonon. 5. Chalcedony from Athens; a Bacchante. 
6. Sard; a woman reading a manuscript roll; before her a lyre. 7. Carnelian; Theseus. 
8. Chalcedony; portrait head; Hellenistic Age. 9. Aquamarine; portrait of Julia, daughter 
of the emperor Titus. 10. Chalcedony; portrait head; Hellenistic Age. 11. Carnelian; bust 
portrait of the Roman emperor Decius. 12. Beryl; portrait of Julia Domna, wife of the 
emperor Septimius Severus. 13. Sapphire; head of the Madonna. 14. Carnelian; the judg- 
ment of Paris; Renaissance work. 15. Rock crystal; Madonna with Jesus and St. Joseph; 
probably Norman-Sicilian work. 



EARLY EUROPEAN 
HISTORY 

BY 

HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 
AUTHOR OF "ancient HISTORY," "READINGS IN ANCIENT HISTORY," 
AND "readings IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY" 



part IX 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY 
MODERN TIMES 



D. C. HEATH & CO, PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 




WEBSTER»S HISTORIES 



Webster's Ancient History 

From prehistoric times to the Age of Charlemagne 

\ Webster^ Early European History 

From prehistoric times to the seventeenth century- 
Webster's Early European History — Part I 

The Ancient History section of the above book 

/ Webster's Early European History — Part II 

From the fall of Rome to the seventeenth century 

Webster's Readings in Ancient History 

Webster's Readings in Medieval and Modern 
History 



D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers 



COPYRIGHT, I917, 



J5Y D. C. HEATH & CO. 



IG7 




SEP -8.1317 



©GI,A470969 



PREFACE 



Tras book, in its two parts, aims to furnish a concise and con- 
nected account of human progress during ancient, medieval, and early- 
modern times. It should meet the requirements of those high schools 
and preparatory schools where ancient history, as a separate disci- 
pline, is being supplanted by a more extended course introductory to 
the study of recent times and contemporary problems. Such a course 
was first outlined by the Regents of the University of the State of 
New York in their Syllabus for Secondary Schools, issued in 1910. 

Since the appearance of the Regents' Syllabus the Committee of 
Five of the American Historical Association has made its Report 
(191 1), suggesting a rearrangement of the curriculum which would 
permit a year's work in English and Continental history. Still 
more recently the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission 
on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, in its Report (19 16) 
to the National Education Association has definitely recommended 
the division of European history into two parts, of which the first 
should include ancient and Oriental civilization, English and Con- 
tinental history to approximately the end of the seventeenth century, 
and the period of American exploration. 

The first twelve chapters of the present work are based upon the 
author's Ancient History, published four years ago. In spite of 
many omissions, it has been possible to follow without essential 
modification the plan of the earlier volume. A number of new maps 
and illustrations have been added to these chapters. 

The selection of collateral reading, always a difficult problem in the 
secondary school, is doubly difficult when so much ground must be 
covered in a single com-se. The author ventures, therefore, to call 
attention to his ^Readings in Ancient History. Its purpose, in the 
words of the preface, is "to provide immature pupils with a variety 
of extended, unified, and interesting extracts on matters which a 
textbook treats with necessary, though none the less deplorable, 
condensation." A companion volume, entitled Readings in Medieval 

iii 



iv 



Preface 



and Modem History, has been prepared. References to both books 
are inserted in footnotes. 

At the end of what has been a long and engrossing task, it becomes 
a pleasant duty to acknowledge the help which has been received 
from teachers in school and college. Various chapters, either in 
manuscript or in the proofs, have been read by Professor James M. 
Leake of Bryn Mawr College; Professor J. C. Hildt of Smith College; 
Very Rev. Patrick J. Healy, Professor of Church History in the 
Catholic University of America; Professor E. F. Humphrey of Trinity 
College; Dr. James Sullivan, Director of the Division of Archives 
and; History, State Dept. of Education of New York; Constantine E. 
McGuire, Assistant Secretary General, International High Commis- 
sion, Washington; Miss Margaret E. McGHl, of the Newton (Mass.) 
High School; and Miss Mabel Chesley, of the Erasmus Hall High 
School, Brooklyn. The author would also express appreciation of 
the labors of the cartographers, artists, and printers, to whose 
accuracy and skill every page of the book bears witness. 

HUTTON WEBSTER 

Lincoln, Nebraska, 
February, 19 17 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

List of Illustrations xi 

List of Maps xv 

List of Plates ' . . xvii 

Suggestions for Further Study xviii 

CHAPTER .. 

XIIL Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, 
476-962 A.D. 

102. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 a.d 298 

103. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 a.d 300 

104. The Franks under Clovis and His Successors . . . 303 

105. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the 

Short 305 

106. The Reign of Charlemagne, 768-814 a.d 307 

107. Charlemagne and the Revival of the Roman Em- 

pire, 800 a.d 311 

108. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 a.d. 312 

109. Germany under Saxon Kings, 919-973 a.d. . . . 315 

110. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the Roman 

Empire, 962 a.d 317 

111. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 a.d. ... 319 

112. Christianity in the British Isles 322 

113. The Fusion of Germans and Romans 325 

XIV. Eastern Europe during the Early Middle Ages, 395- 
1095 A.D. 

114. The Roman Empire in the East ......... 328 

115. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 a.d 329 

116. The Empire and its Asiatic Foes 332 

117. The Empire and its Foes in Europe 334 

118. Byzantine Civilization 335 

119. Constantinople 337 

XV. The Christian Church in the East and in the West 

TO 1054 A.D. 

120. Development of the Christian Church 342 

121. Eastern Christianity 346 

v 



vi Contents 

CHAPTER PACE 

122. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy ... 348 

123. Growth of the Papacy 350 

124. Monasticism 352 

125. Life and Work of the Monks 355 

126. Spread of Christianity over Europe 358 

127. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity . 360 

128. The Greek Church 363 

129. The Roman Church 364 

XVI. The Orient against the Occident: Rise and Spread 
OF Islam, 622-1058 a.d. 

130. Arabia and the Arabs 367 

131. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 a.d. 370 

132. Islam and the Koran 372 

133. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 375 

134. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain . . 378 

135. The Caliphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 a.d. . 379 

136. Arabian Civilization ' 381 

137. The Influence of Islam 386 

XVII. The Northmen and the Normans to 1066 a.d. 

138. Scandinavia and the Northmen 389 

139. The Viking Age 391 

140. Scandinavian Heathenism 394 

141. The Northmen in the West 397 

142. The Northmen in the East . 399 

143. Normandy and the Normans 402 

144. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred the 

Great 403 

145. Norman Conquest of England; WiUiam the Con- 

queror 407 

146. Results of the Norman Conquest 410 

147. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily . 412 

148. The Normans in European History 413 

XVIII. Feudalism. 

149. Rise of Feudalism 415 

150. Feudalism as a System of Local Government . . 416 

151. Feudal Justice 419 

152. Feudal Warfare 421 

153. The Castle and Life of the Nobles 424 

154. Knighthood and Chivalry 428 

155. Feudalism as a System of Local Industry .... 431 

156. The Village and Life of the Peasants 434 



Contents vii 

CHAPTER PAGE 

157. Serfdom 436 

158. Decline of Feudalism 437 

XIX. The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, 962-1273 

A.D. 

159. Characteristics of the Medieval Church 439 

160. Church Doctrine and Worship 440 

161. Church Jurisdiction 444 

162. The Secular Clergy 446 

163. The Regular Clergy 448 

164. The Friars 450 

165. Power of the Papacy 453 

166. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 a.d 455 

167. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 a.d 460 

168. Significance of the Medieval Church 463 

XX. The Occident against the Orient; the Crusades, 
1095-1291 a.d. 

169. Causes of the Crusades 466 

170. First Crusade, 1095-1099 a.d. . 468 

171. Crusaders' States in Syria 472 

172. Second Crusade, 1147-1149 a.d., and Third Cru- 

sade, 1189-1192 A.D 474 

173. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Con- 

stantinople, 1202-1261 A.D 476 

174. Results of the Crusades 479 

XXI. The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks to 1453 a.d. 

175. The Mongols 483 

176. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 a.d. ... 484 

177. The Mongols in China and India 487 

178. The Mongols in Eastern Europe 488 

179. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests, 1227- 

1453 A.D 491 

180. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe . . 493 

XXII. European Nations during the Later Middle Ages. 

181. Growth of the Nations 496 

182. England under WiUiam the Conqueror, 1066-1087 

A.D.; the Norman Kingship 497 

183. England under Henry II, 1154-1189 a.d.; Royal 

Justice and the Common Law 499 

184. The Great Charter, 1215 a.d 502 

185. Parliament during the Thirteenth Century . . . . 505 



viii Contents 

CHAPTER PAGE 

186. Expansion of England under Edward I, 1272- 

1307 A.D 507 

187. Unification of France, 987-1328 a.d 511 

188. The Hundred Years' War between England and 

France, 1337-1453 a.d 515 

189. The Unification of Spain (to 1492 a.d.) 519 

190. Austria and the Swiss Confederation, 1273-1499 

A.D 522 

191. Expansion of Germany 525 

XXIII. European Cities during the Later Middle Ages. 

192. Growth of the Cities 529 

193. City Life 531 

194. Civic Industry: the Guilds 534 

195. Trade and Commerce 537 

196. Money and Banking 541 

197. Itahan Cities 543 

198. German Cities; the Hanseatic League 547 

199. The Cities of Flanders 549 

XXIV. Medieval Civilization. 

200. Formation of National Languages , . . 554 

201. Development of National Literatures 558 

202. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture; the Cathe- 

drals 562 

203. Education; the Universities 566 

204. Scholasticism 570 

205. Science and Magic 572 

206. Popular Superstitions 575 

207. Popular Amusements and Festivals 579 

208. Manners and Customs 584 

XXV. The Renaissance. 

209. Meaning of the Renaissance 589 

210. Revival of Learning in Italy 591 

211. Paper and Printing 594 

212. Revival of Art in Italy 597 

213. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy . . . 600 

214. The Renaissance in Literature 602 

215. The Renaissance in Education 606 

216. The Scientific Renaissance 607 

217. The Economic Renaissance 609 

XXVL Geographical Discovery and Colonization. 

218. Medieval Geography 614 

219. Aids to Exploration 618 



Contents ix 

CHAPTER PAGE 

220. To the Indies Eastward: Prince Henry and Da 

Gama 620 

221. The Portuguese Colonial Empire 622 

222. To the Indies Westward: Columbus and Magellan 624 

223. The Indians 630 

224. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America . 633 

225. The Spanish Colonial Empire 635 

226. French and EngKsh Explorations in America . . 638 

227. The Old World and the New 639 

XXVII. The Reformation and the Religious Wars, 1517- 
1648 A.D. 

228. DecHne of the Papacy 643 

229. Heresies and Heretics 647 

230. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reforma- 

tion in Germany, 1517-1522 a.d 651 

231. Charles V and the Spread of the German Reforma- 

tion, 1519-1556 A.D. 654 

232. The Reformation in Switzerland: Zwingli and 

Calvin 656 

233. The Enghsh Reformation, 1533-1558 a.d. ... 658 

234. The Protestant Sects 662 

235. The Catholic Counter Reformation 665 

236. Spain under Philip II, 1556-1598 a.d 668 

237. Revolt of the Netherlands 671 

238. England under Ehzabeth, 1558-1603 a.d 674 

239. The HuguenOt Wars in France 679 

240. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 a.d 682 

XXVHI. Absolutism in France and England, 1603-1715 a.d. 

241. The Divine Right of Kings 688 

242. The Absolutism of Louis XIV, 1661-1715 a.d. . 689 

243. France under Louis XIV 694 

244. The Wars of Louis XIV 697 

245. The Absolutism of the Stuarts, 1603-1642 a.d. . 703 

246. Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War, 1642- 

1649 A.D 710 

247. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 1649- 

1660 A.D ■ 714 

248. The Restoration and the " Glorious Revolution," 

1660-1689 A.D 717 

249. England in the Seventeenth Century 721 



X 



Contents 



CHAPTER PAGE 

XXIX. The Expansion of England and France in North 
America, 1607-1763 a.d. 

250. Mercantilism and Trading Companies 726 

251. The English Settlement of Virginia and Mas- 

sachusetts 728 

252. The Thirteen Colonies 734 

253. The Transit of Civilization from England to 

America 738 

254. Economic Development of the Colonies .... 742 

255. Political Develpment of the Colonies 746 

256. French Settlements in North America 749 

257. The Rivalry of France and England in North 

America 752 

Appendix — Table of Events and Dates 757 

Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 761 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna 299 

Charlemagne (Lateran Museum, Rome) 307 

The Iron Crown of Lombardy 308 

Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle 310 

Ring Seal of Otto the Great 316 

Anglo-Saxon Drinking Horn 320 

St. Martin's Church, Canterbury 323 

Canterbury Cathedral 324 

A Mosaic of Justinian . 330 

The Three Existing Monuments of the Hippodrome, Constantinople . 339 

Religious Music 345 

The Nestorian Monimient 347 

Papal Arms 348 

St. Daniel the Styhte on his Column 353 

Abbey of Saint Germain des Pres, Paris 356 

A Monk Copyist 357 

Mecca 368 

A Letter of Mohammed 370 

A Passage from the Koran 373 

Naval Battle showing Use of "Greek Fire" 377 

Interior of the Mosque of Cordova 384 

Capitals and Arabesques from the Alhambra 386 

Swedish Rock Carving , 389 

A Runic Stone 390 

A Viking Ship 392 

Norse Metal Work (Museum, Copenhagen) 396 

Alfred the Great 404 

Alfred's Jewel (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) 406 

A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry (Museum of Bayeux, Normandy) 408 

Trial by Combat 421 

Mounted Knight 422 

Pierrefonds 425 

Chateau Gaillard (Restored) 426 

King and Jester 427 

Falconry 429 

xi 



xii List of Illustrations 

PAGE 

Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century 432 

Pilgrims to Canterbury . 442 

A Bishop ordaining a Priest 447 

St. Francis blessing the Birds 451 

The Spiritual and the Temporal Power 456 

Henry IV, Countess Matilda, and Gregory VII 459 

Contest between Crusaders and Moslems 467 

"Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem 471 

Effigy of a Knight Templar 473 

Richard I in Prison 476 

Hut-Wagon of the Mongols (Reconstruction) 484 

Tomb of Timur at Samarkand 487 

Mohammed II 492 

The "White Tower" 498 

A Passage from Domesday Book 499 

Windsor Castle 501 

Extract from the Great Charter 504 

Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey 508 

A Queen Eleanor Cross 510 

Royal Arms of Edward III 515 

Enghsh Archer 516 

Walls of Carcassonne 530 

A Scene in Rothenburg 532 

House of the Butchers' Guild, Hildesheim, Germany 535 

Baptistery, Cathedral, and "Leaning Tower" of Pisa ....... 544 

Venice and the Grand Canal 546 

Belfry of Bruges 550 

Town Hall of Louvain, Belgium 551 

Geoffrey Chaucer 557 

Roland at Roncesvalles 559 

Cross Section of Amiens Cathedral 564 

Gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris 565 

View of New College, Oxford 569 

Tower of Magdalen College, Oxford 570 

Roger Bacon 573 

Magician rescued from the Devil 575 

The Witches' Sabbath 578 

Chess Pieces of Charlemagne . ? 579 

Bear Baiting 581 

Mummers 582 

A Miracle Play at Coventry, England 583 

Manor House in Shropshire, England 584 

Interior of an English Manor House 585 



List of Illustrations xiii 

PAGE 

Costumes of Ladies during the Later Middle Ages 586 

Dante AligMeri 591 

Petrarch ' 592 

An Early Printing Press 595 

Facsimile of Part of Caxton's " .-Eneid " (Reduced) 596 

Desiderius Erasmus (Louvre, Paris) 601 

Cervantes 603 

WUham Shakespeare 604 

Shakespeare's Birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon 605 

Richard II 612 

Geographical INIonsters . . . 615 

An Astrolabe 619 

Vasco da Gama 621 

Christopher Columbus (Bibhoteca Nacional, IMadrid) 626 

Isabella 627 

Ship of 1492 A.D 627 

The Xame " America " 628 

Ferdinand Magellan 629 

Aztec Sacrificial Knife 631 

Aztec Sacrificial Stone 632 

Cabot Memorial Tower 638 

John W'ycHffe 649 

Martin Luther 651 

Charles V 655 

John Cahdn 657 

Hemy \TII 658 

Ruins of Mehose Abbey , 660 

Chained Bible 663 

St. Ignatius Lo3'ola 665 

Phihp II 669 

The Escorial 670 

WiUiam the Silent 672 

Elizabeth 675 

Crown of Elizabeth's Reign 676 

London Bridge in the Time of EHzabeth 677 

The Spanish Armada in the English Channel 678 

Cardinal Richelieu (National Gallery, London) 682 

Gustavus Adolphus 684 

Cardinal Mazarin 690 

LcJuis XIV 691 

Versailles 693 

Medal of Louis XIV 695 

Marlborough 702 



xiv List of Illustrations 

PAGE 

Gold Coin of James I 704 

A Puritan Family 705 

Charles I 707 

Execution of the Earl of Strafford - 708 

Oliver Cromwell 711 

Interior of Westminster Hall 713 

Great Seal of England under the Commonwealth (Reduced) .... 716 

Boys' Sports 718 

Silver Crown of Charles II 719 

A London Belknan 722 

Coach and Sedan Chair 723 

Death Mask of Sir Isaac Newton 724 

Ruins of the Brick Church at Jamestown 729 

The Mayflower 731 

John Winthrop 733 

William Penn 736 

First Page of Penn's Account of Pennsylvania 737 

A Title-page of Poor Richard's Almanac 739 

A Page from the New England Primer 741 

A Redemptioner's Indenture 744 

New York Colonial Paper Money 745 

" Join or Die " 748 

Montcalm 754 

James Wolfe 755 



LIST OF MAPS 



PAGE 

Europe at the Death of Theodoric, 526 a.d 301 

Europe at the Death of Justinian, 565 a.d 301 

Growth of the Frankish Dominions, 481-768 a.d 304 

Europe in the Age of Charlemagne, 800 a.d Facing 308 

The Frankish Dominions as divided by the Treaties of Verdun 

(843 a.d.) and Mersen (870 a.d.) 313 

Europe in the x^ge of Otto the Great, 962 a.d 318 

Anglo-Saxon Britain 321 

Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Tenth Century . Facing 326 
The Roman Empire in the East during the Tenth and Eleventh 

Centuries 332 

Vicinity of Constantinople 338 

Plan of Constantinople 340 

Plan of Kirk stall Abbey, Yorkshire 354 

Growth of Christianity from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century 

(double page) Betiveen 358 and 359 

Expansion of Islam Facing 376 

Discoveries of the Northmen in the West 398 

England under Alfred the Great 405 

Dominions of Wilham the Conqueror 409 

Plan of Chateau GaiUard 424 

Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire 435 

Germany and Italy during the Interregnum, 1254-1273 a.d. Facing 462 
Mediterranean Lands after the Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204 a.d. 

(double page) Betiveen 478 and 479 

The Mongol Empire 486 

Russia at the End of the Middle Ages 489 

Empire of the Ottoman Turks at the Fall of Constantinople, 1453 a.d. 494 

Dominions of the Plantagenets in England and France 503 

Scotland in the Thirteenth Century 509 

Unification of France during the Middle Ages 513 

Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages 521 

Growth of the Hapsburg Possessions 523 

The Swiss Confederation, 1291-1513 a.d 524 

German Expansion Eastward during the Middle Ages 527 

XV 



xvi List of Maps 

PAGE 

Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe in the Thir- 
teenth and Fourteenth Centuries 538 

Medieval Trade Routes (double page) Between 540 aitd 541 

Plan of Sahsbury Cathedral, England 562 

The World according to Cosmas Indicopleustes, 535 a.d 616 

The Hereford Map, 1280 a.d 616 

Behaim's Globe 625 

Portuguese and Spanish Colonial Empires in the Sixteenth Century 

(double page) Between 628 and 629 

The West Indies 633 

An Early Map of the New World (1540 a.d.) . 634 

Western Europe in the Time of Elizabeth . Facing 634 

The Great Schism, 1378-1417 a.d 646 

Europe at the Beginning of the Reformation, 1519 a.d. . . Facing 654 

Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 a.d. . . .* 662 

The Netherlands in the Sixteenth Century 673 

Europe at the End of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 a.d. . . Facing 684 

Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV 699 

Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 a.d Facing 702 

England and Wales — The Civil Wars of the Seventeenth Century 709 

Ireland in the Sixteenth Century 715 

Captaui John Smith's Map of New England 732 

The Exploration of North America by the Middle of the Seven- 
teenth Century 735 

La Salle's Explorations 751 

North America after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 a.d. . 753 

Central North America, 1755 a.d., at the Beginning of the French 

and Indian War Facing 754 

Central North America, 1763 a.d., after the French and Indian 

War Facing 754 



LIST OF PLATES 



Ancient and Medieval Gems Frontispiece 

Sancta Sophia, Constantinople 338 

Fountain of Lions in the i\lhambra 386 

The Taj Mahal, x\gra 488 

Campanile and Doge's Palace, Venice 546 

Illuminated Manuscript 558 

Reims Cathedral 562 

Cologne Cathedral 563 

Interior of King's CoUege Chapel, Cambridge 570 

Ghiberti's Bronze Doors at Florence 590 

St. Peter's, Rome 591 

Italian Paintings of the Renaissance 600 

Flemish, Spanish, and Dutch Paintings of the Renaissance 601 



xvii 



SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 



All serious students of history should have access to the American His- 
torical Review (N. Y., 1895 to date, quarterly, $4.00 a year). This journal, 
Periodicals organ of the American Historical Association, contains 

articles by scholars, critical reviews of all important works, 
and notes and news. The History Teacher's Magazine is edited under the 
supervision of a committee of the American Historical Association (Phila- 
delphia, 1909 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year). Every well-equipped school 
library should contain the files of the National Geographical Magazine (Wash- 
ington, 1890 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year) and of Art and Archceology 
(Washington, 1914 to date, monthly, $3.00 a year). These two periodicals 
make a special feature of illustrations. 

Useful books for the teacher's library include H. E. Bourne, The Teaching 
of History and Civics in the Elementary and the Secondary School (N. Y., 1902, 
Longmans, Green, arid Co., $1.50), Henry Johnson, The 
Works on Teaching of History (N. Y., 1915, Macmillan, $1.40), H. B. 
and x'e^hing Historical Evidence (N. Y., 1909, Oxford University 

of History Press, American Branch, 75 cents), Frederic Harrison, The 
Meaning of History and Other Historical Pieces (New ed., 
N. Y., 1900 Macmillan, $1.75), J. H. Robinson, The New History (N. Y., 
1912, Macmillan, $1.50), and H. B. George, The Relations of History and 
Geography (4th ed., N. Y., 1910, Oxford University Press, American Branch, 
$1.10). The following reports are indispensable: * 

The Study of History in Schools. Report to the American Historical Association 
by the Committee of Seven (N. ¥., 1899, Macmillan, 50 cents). 

The Study of History in Secondary Schools. Report to the American Historical 
Association by a Committee of Five (N. Y., 191 1, Macmillan, 25 cents). 

Historical Sources in Schools. Report to the New England History Teachers' 
Association by a Select Committee (N. Y., 1902, Macmillan, out of print). 

A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools. Report by a Special Committee of the 
New England History Teachers' Association (N. Y., 1904, Heath, $1.32). 

A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries. Published under the auspices 
of the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland 
(2d ed., N. Y., 1915, Longmans, Green, and Co., 60 cents). 

For chronology, genealogies, Hsts of sovereigns, and other data the most 
valuable works are Arthur Hassall, European History, 476-1 gio (new ed., 

N. Y., 1901, Macmillan, $2.25), G. P. Putnam, Tabular 
^d^^Encyclo ^^'^^-^ ^/ Universal History (new ed., N. Y., 191 5, Putnam, 
pedias " $2.50), and Karl J. Ploetz, A Handbook of Universal History, 

translated by W. H. Tillinghast (Boston, 1915, Houghton 
MifBin Co., $3.00). 

xviii 



Suggestions for Further Study 



xix 



The Illustrated Topics for Ancient History, arranged by D. C. Knowlton 
(Philadelphia, McKinley PubHshing Co., 65 cents), contain much valuable 
material in the shape of a syllabus, source quotations, 
outhne maps, pictures, and other aids. The following syl- 
labi have been prepared for coUegiate instruction: 

MuNHOE, D. C, and Sellery, G. C. A Syllabus of Medieval History, 3Q5-1500 

(N. Y., 1913, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.00). 
Richardson, O. H. Syllabus of Continental European History from the Fall of 

Rome to 1870 (Boston, 1904, Ginn, boards, 75 cents). 
Stephenson, Andrew. Syllabus of Lectures on European History (Terre Haute, 

Ind., 1897, Inland Publishing Co., $1.50). 
TnoiTPSON, J. W. Reference Studies in Medieval History (2d ed., Chicago, 1914, 

University of Chicago Press, $1.25). A rich collection of classified references. 

An admirajble collection of maps for school use is W. R. Shepherd, His- 
torical Atlas (N. Y., 1911, Holt, $2.50), with about two hundred and fifty 
. , maps covering the historical field. Other valuable works 

are E. W. Dow, Atlas of European History (N. Y., 1907, 
Holt, $1.50) and Ramsay Muir, A New School Atlas of Modern History 
(N. Y., 1911, Holt, $1.25). Much use can be made of the inexpensive and 
handy Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe by J. G. Bartholomew in 
"Everyman's Library" (N. Y., 1910, Button, 50 cents). 

The Spruner-Bretschneider Historical Maps are ten in number, size 
62 X 52 inches, and cover the period from a.d. 350 to 1815. The text is in 
Wall Maps German (Chicago, Nystrom, each $6.00; Rand, McNally, 
and Charts and Co., each $6.50). Johnston's Maps of English ajid Euro- 
pean History are sixteen in number, size 40 x 30 inches, and 
include four maps of ancient history (Chicago, Nystrom, each $2.50), 
A new series of European History Maps, thirty-nine in number, size 40 x 32 
inches, has been prepared for the study of ancient history by Professors 
J. H. Breasted and C. F. Huth, and for medieval and modern history by 
Professor S. B. Harding (Chicago Denoyer-Geppert Co., complete set with 
tripod stand, S52.00; in two spring roller cases, $73.00). These maps may 
also be had separately. The maps in this admirable series omit all irrelevant 
detaU, present place names in the modern EngHsh form, and in choice of 
subject matter emphasize the American viewpoint. The school should 
also possess good physical waU maps such as the Sydow Habenicht or the 
Kiepert series, both to be obtained from Rand, McNally, and Co. The text 
is in German. Phillips's Model Test Maps and Johnston's New Series of 
Physical Wall Maps are obtainable from A. J. Nystrom and Co. The only 
large charts available are those prepared by MacCoun for his Historical 
Geography Charts of Europe. The two sections, "Ancient and Classical" 
and "Medieval and Modern," are sold separately (N. Y., Silver, Burdett, 
and Co., $15.00), A helpful series of Blackboard Outline Maps is issued by 
J. L. Engle, Beaver, Penn. These are wall maps, printed with paint on 



XX 



Suggestions for Further Study 



blackboard cloth, for use with an ordinary crayon. Such maps are also 
sold by the Denoyer-Geppert Co., Chicago. 

The "Studies" following each chapter of this book include various exer- 
cises for which small outline maps are required. Such maps are sold by 
Outline D. C. Heath and Co., Boston, New York, Chicago. Useful 

Maps atlases of outhne maps are also to be had of the McKinley 

PubHshing Co., Philadelphia, Atkinson, Mentzer and Grover, Chicago, 
W. B. Harison, New York City, and of other publishers. 

The best photographs of medieval works of art must usually be obtained 

from the foreign publishers in Naples, Florence, Rome, Munich, Paris,' 

^. Athens, and London, or from their American agents. Such 

Illustrations , i • , i • o ■ ^ n 

photographs, in the usual size, 8 x lo inches, sell, unmounted, 

at from 6 to 8 francs a dozen. All dealers in lantern sKdes issue descriptive 
catalogues of a great variety of archaeological subjects. In addition to 
photographs and lantern slides, a collection of stereoscopic views is very 
helpful in giving vividness and interest to instruction in ancient history. 
An admirable series of photographs for the stereoscope, including Egypt, 
Palestine, Greece, and Italy, is issued by Underwood and Underwood, New 
York City. The same firm supphes convenient maps and handbooks for 
use in this connection. The Keystone stereographs, prepared by the Key- 
stone View Company, Meadville, Penn., may also be cordially recommended. 
The architecture, costumes, amusements, and occupations of the Middle 
Ages in England are shown in Longmans' Historical Illustrations (six port- 
folios, each containing twelve plates in black-and-white, Longmans, Green, 
and Co., 90 cents, each portfolio). The same firm issues Longmans' His- 
torical Wall Pictures, consisting of twelve colored pictures from original 
paintings illustrating English history (each picture, separately, 80 cents; 
in a portfolio, $10.50). Other notable collections are Lehmann's Geograph- 
ical Pictures, Historical Pictures, and Types of Nations, and Cybulski's 
Historical Pictures (Chicago, Denoyer-Geppert Co.; each picture separately 
mounted on rollers, $1.35 to $2.25). The New England History Teachers' 
Association publishes a series of Authentic Pictures for Class Room Use, size 
5x8 inches, price 3 cents each. The Catalogue of the Collection of Historical 
Material at Simmons College, prepared by the New England History Teachers' 
Association (2d ed., Boston, 191 2, Houghton Mifflin Co., 25 cents), con- 
tains an extensive list of pictures, sKdes, models, and other aids to history 
teaching. Among the more useful collections in book form of photographic 
reproductions and drawings are the following: 

FOUGERES, GuSTAVE. La vie publique et privee des Grecs et des Romains (2d ed., 
Paris, 1900, Hachette, 15 francs). An album of 85 pictures. 

FuRTWANGLER, Adolf. Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (N. Y., Scribner, $15.00). 

Hekler, Anton. Greek and Roman Portraits (N. Y., 1913, Putnam, $7.50). 311 
plates, with comment and bibliography. 



Suggestions for Further Study 



xxi 



MuziK, H., and Perschinka, F. Kunst und Leben im AUertum (Vienna, 1909, 

F. Tempsky; Leipzig, G. Freytag, 4.40 marks). 
Osborne, Duefield. Engraved Gems (N. Y., 1913, Holt, $6.00). 
PARSffiNTiER, A. Alhim historique (Paris, 1894-1905, Colin, 4 vols., each 15 francs). 

Illustrations covering the medieval and modern periods, with descriptive text 

in French. 

To vitalize the study of geography and history there is nothing better 
"Works of than the reading of modern books of travel. Among these 
Travel may be mentioned: 

Clark, F. E. The Holy Land of Asia Minor (N. Y., 1914, Scribner, $1.00). Pop- 
ular sketches. 

Dunning, H. W. To-day on the Nile (N. Y.. 1905, Pott, $2.50). 
To-day in Palestine (N. Y., 1907, Pott, $2.50). 

DwiGHT, H. G. Constantinople, Old and Neiv (N. Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00). 
Edwards, Amelia B. A Thousand Miles up the Nile (2d ed., N. Y., 1888, Button, 
$2.50). 

Forman, H. J. The Ideal Italian Tour (Boston, 1911, Houghton Mifflin Co., 

$1.50). A brief and attractive volume covering all Italy. 
Hay, John. Castilian Days (Boston, 1871, Houghton Mifflin Co., $i'25). 
HuTTON, Edward. Rome (N. Y., 1909, Macmillan, $2.00). 
Jackson, A. V. W. Persia, Past and Present (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, $4.00). 
Lucas, E. V. A Wanderer in Florence (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $1.75). 
Warner, C. D. In the Levant (N, Y., 1876, Harper, $2.00). 

The following w^orks of historical fiction comprise only a selection from 
a very large number of books suitable for supplementary reading. For 

^ . J extended bibliographies see E. A. Baker, A Guide to His- 
Fiction torical Fiction (new ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $6.00) and 

Jonathan Nield, A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and 
Tales (3d ed., N. Y., 1904, Putnam, $1.75). An excellent list of historical 
stories, especially designed for children, will be found in the Bibliography of 
History for Schools and Libraries, parts viii-ix. 

Bulwer-Lytton, Edward. The Last Days of Pompeii (Boston, 1834, Little, 

Brown, and Co., $1.25). 
Champney, Elizabeth W. The Romance of Imperial Rome (N. Y., 1910, Putnam, 

$3.50). 

Church, A. J. Stories of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France (N. Y., 1902, 
Macmillan, $1.75). 

Dahn, Felix, Felicitas (Chicago, 1883, McClurg, 75 cents). Rome, 476 a.d. 

Doyle, A. C. The White Company (Boston, 1890, Caldwell, 75 cents). The Eng- 
lish in France and Castile, 1366-1367 a.d. 

Eliot, George. Romola (N. Y., 1863, Dutton, 35 cents). Florence and Savona- 
rola in the latter part of the 6fteenth century. 

Hale, E. E. In His Name (Boston, 1873, Little, Brown, and Co., $1.00). The 
Waldenses about 11 79 a.d. 

Hardy, A. S. Passe Rose (Boston, 1889, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.25). Franks 
and Saxons of Charlemagne's time. 



xxii 



Suggestions for Further Study 



Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter (N. Y., 1850, Button, 35 cents). 

Massachusetts in the seventeenth century. 
Hugo, Victor. Notre Dame (N. Y., 1831, Button, 35 cents). Paris, late fifteenth 

century. 

Irving, Washington. The Alhamhra (N. Y., 1832, Putnam, $1.00). Sketches, 

of the Moors and Spaniards. 
Jacobs, Joseph (editor). The Most Delectable History of Reynard the Fox (N. Y., 

1895, Macmillan, fi.50). 
KiNGSLEY, Charles. Westward Ho ! (N. Y., 1855, Button, 35 cents). Voyages of 

Elizabethan seamen and the struggle with Spain. 
Lang, Andrew. The Monk of Fife (N. Y., 1895, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.25), 

The Maid of Orleans and the Hundred Years' War. 
Lane, E. W. (translator). The Arabian Nights' Entertainments (2d ed., N. Y., 

1859, Macmillan, 35 cents). 
Manzoni, Alessandro. The Betrothed (N. Y., 1825, Macmillan, 2 vols., 70 cents). 

Milan under Spanish rule, 1628-1630 a.d. 
Mason, Eugene (translator). Aucassin and Nicolette and other Medieval Romances, 

and Legends (N. Y., 1910, Button, 35 cents). 
Reade, Charles. The Cloister and the Hearth (N. Y., 1861, Button, 35 cents). 

Eve of the Reformation. 
ScHEFFEL, J. voN. Ekkehard, translated by Helena Easson (N. Y., 1S57, Button, 

35 cents. Germany in the tenth century. 
Scott, (Sir) Walter. The Talisman (N. Y., 1825, Button, 35 cents). Reign of 

Richard I, 1193 a.d. 

Ivanhoe (N. Y., Heath, 50 cents). Richard I, 1194 a.d. 

SiENKiEwicz, Henryk. Quo Vadis? (Boston, 1896, Little, Brown, and Co., $2.00). 

Reign of Nero. 

Stevenson, R. L. The Black Arrow (N. Y., 1888, Scribner, $1.00). War of the 
Roses. 

" Twain, Mark." A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of King Arthur (N. Y., 1889, 
Harper, $1.75). 

It is unnecessary to emphasize the value, as collateral reading, of his- 
torical poems and plays. To the brief list which follows should be added, 
^.^^ , the material in Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman, 

Poetry English History told by English Poets (N. Y., 1902, Mac- 

millan, 60 cents). 
Burns, Robert. The Battle of Bannockburn. 
Clough, a. H. Columbus. 
CoLERmcE, S. T. Kubla Khan. 
Brayton, Michael. The Battle of Agincourt. 

Longfellow, H. W. "The Saga of King Olaf" {Tales of a Wayside Inn) and 

The Skeleton in Armor. 
Macaulay J. B. The Armada, and The Battle of Irvy, 
Miller, Joaquin. Columbus. 
RossETTi, B. G. The White Ship. 

Schiller, Friedrich. The Maid of Orleans, William Tell, Maria Stuart, and 
Wallenstein. 

Scott, (Sir) Walter. "Flodden Field" {Marmion, canto vi, stanzas 19-27, 33~35)' 



Suggestions for Further Study 



xxiii 



Shakespeare, Willlam. King John, Richard the Second, Henry the Fourth, parts i 
and ii, Henry the Fifth, Henry the Sixth, parts i, ii, and iii, Richard the Third, 
Henry the Eighth, and The Merchant of Venice. 

Tennyson, Alfred. Boadicea, St. Teletnachus, St. Simeon Stylites, Sir Galahad 
and The Revenge: A Ballad of the Fleet. 

Th.\ckeray, W. M. King Canute. 

Full information regarding the best translations of the sources of ancient, 

medieval, and modern history is to be found in one of the Reports previously 

_ cited — Historical Sources in Schools, parts ii-iv. The use 

Sources . , . 

of the following collections of extracts from the sources 

will go far toward remedying the lack of library facihties. 

DuNCALF, Frederic, and Krey, A. C. Parallel Source Problems in Medieval 

History (N. Y., 191 2, Harper, $1.10). 
Ogg, F. a. a Source Book of Medieval History (N. Y., 1907, American Book Co., 

$1.50). 

E.OBINSON, J. H. Readings in European History (Abridged ed., Boston, 1906, Ginn, 
$1.50). 

Thatcher, 0. J., and McNeal, E. H. A Source Book forMedieval History (N. Y., 
1905, Scribner, $1.85). 

Webster, Hutton. Readings in Medieval and Modern History (N. Y., 191 7, 
Heath, $1.12) . Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European 
History (N. Y., 1894-1899, Longmans, Green, and Co., 6 vols., each $1.50). 

Most of the books in the following hst are inexpensive, easily procured 
and weU adapted in style and choice of topics to the needs of immature 
Modern pupils. A few more elaborate and costly volumes, especially 

Works valuable for their illustrations, are indicated by an asterisk (*) . 

For detailed bibhographies, often accompanied by critical estimates, see 
C. K. iVdams, A Manual of Historical Literature (3d ed., N. Y., 1889, Harper, 
$2.50), and the Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries, parts iii-v. 

GENERAL WORKS 

C.ARLYLE, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (N. Y., 

1840, Button, 35 cents). 
Creasy, E. S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo 

N. Y., 1854, Button, 35 cents). 
GiBBiNS, H. de B. The History of Commerce in Europe (2d ed., N. Y., 1897, Mac- 

millan, 90 cents). 

Herbertson, a. J. and Herbertson, F. B. Man and His Work (3d ed., N. Y., 
1914, Macmillan, 60 cents) . An introduction to the study of human geography . 

Jacobs, Joseph. The Story of Geographical Discovery (N. Y., 1898, Appleton, 35 
cents) . 

Jenks, Edward. A History of Politics (N. Y., 1900, Button, 35 cents). A very 
illuminating essay. 

Keane, John. The Evolution of Geography (London, 1899, Stanford, 65.). Help- 
fully illustrated. 

Myres, J. L. The Dawn of History (N. Y., 191 2, Holt, 50 cents). 



xxiv 



Suggestions for Further Study 



Pattison, R. p. D. Leading Figures in European History (N. Y., igi2, Mac- 
millan, $i.6o). Biographical sketches of European statesmen from Charle- 
magne to Bismarck. 

Reinach, Salomon. Apollo; an Illustrated Manual of the History of Art through- 
out the Ages, translated by Florence Sitnmonds (last ed., N. Y., 1914, Scribner, 
$1.50). The best brief work on the subject. 

Seignobos, Charles. History of Medieval and of Modern Civilization, edited by 
J. A. James (N. Y., 1907, Scribner, $1.25), 

MEDIEVAL HISTORY 
Adams, G. B. The Growth of the French Nation (N. Y., 1896, Macmillan, $1.25). 

The best short history of France. 
Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L. The Crusades (N.Y., 1894., Putnam, $1.50). 
Baring-Gould, Sabine. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1869, Longmans, 

Green, and Co., $1.25). 
Bateson, Mary. Medieval England (N. Y., 1903, Putnam, $1.50). Deals with 

social and economic life. "Story of the Nations." 
Cheyney, E. p. An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England 

(N. Y., 1901, Macmillan, I1.40). The best brief work on the subject. 
Church, R. W. The Beginning of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1877, Scribner, $1.00). 
CuTTS, E. L, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages (London, 1872, De La More 

Press, 7^. dd). An almost indispensable book; illustrated. 
Davis, H. W. C. Medieval Europe (N. Y., 191 1, Holt, 50 cents). 
Charlemagne, the Hero of Two Nations (N. Y., 1899, Putnam, $1.50). " Heroes 

of the Nations." 

Emerton, Ephraim. An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 1888, 
Ginn, $1.10). The most satisfactory short account, and of special value to 
beginners. 

FooRD, Edward. The Byzantine Empire (N. Y., 191 1, Macmillan, $2.00). The 
most convenient short treatment; lavishly illustrated. 

* Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline ond Fall of the Roman Empire, 

edited by J. B. Bury (N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, 7 vols., $25.00). The best 
edition, illustrated and provided with maps, of this standard work. 

* Green, J. R. Short History of the English People, edited by Mrs. J. R. Green 

and Miss Kate Norgate (N. Y., 1893-1895, Harper, 4 vols , $20.00). A beauti- 
fully illustrated edition of this standard work. 
Guerber, H. a. Legends of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1896, American Book Co., 
$1.50). 

Haskins, C. H. The Normans in European History (Boston, 1915, Houghton 
Mifflin Co., $2.00). 

HoDGKiN, Thomas. The Dynasty of Theodosius (N. Y., 1899, Oxford University 
Press, American Branch, $1.50). Popular lectures summarizing the author's 
extensive studies. 

Jessopp, Augustus. The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essays (N. Y., 

1888, Putnam, $1.25). A book of great interest. 
*Lacroix, Paul. Science and Literature in the Middle Ages and at the Period of 

the Renaissance (London, 1880, Bickers and Son, out of print). 
Lawrence, W. W. Medieval Story (N. Y., 191 1, Columbia University Press, 

$1.50). Discusses the great literary productions of the Middle Ages. 



Suggestions for Further Study xxv 



Mawer, Allen. The Vikings (N. Y., 1913, Putnam, 35 cents). 

MuNRO, D. C, and Sellery, G. C. Medieval Civilization (2d ed., N. Y., 1907, 

Century Co., $2.00). Translated selections from standard works by French 

and German scholars. 
Rait, R. S. Life in the Medieval University (N. Y., 191 2, Putnam, 35 cents). 

"Cambridge Manuals." 
Synge, M. B. a Short History of Social Life in England (N. Y., 1906, Barnes, 

$1.50). 

Tappan, Eva M. When Knights were Bold (Boston, 191 2, Houghton Mifflin 
Co., $2.00). An economic and social study of the Feudal Age; charmingly 
written. 

TiCKNER, F. W. A Social and Industrial History of England (N. Y., 1915, Long- 
mans, Green, and Co., $1.00). Very simply written and well illustrated. 

* Wright, Thomas. The Homes of Other Days (London, 1871, Triibner, out of 

print). Valuable for both text and illustrations. 

TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES 
Cheyney, E. p. European Background of American History, 1 300-1600 (N. Y., 

1904, Harper, $2.00). 
Cretghton, Manbell. The Age of Elizabeth (13th ed., N. Y., 1897, Scribner, 

$1 .00) . "Epochs of Modern History." 
FiSKE, John. The Discovery and Colonization of North America (Boston, 1905, 
Ginn, 90 cents). 

Gardiner, S. R. The Thirty Years' War (N. Y., 1874, Scribner, $1.00). 
Goodyear, W. H. Renaissance and Modern Art (N. Y., 1894, Macmillan, $1.00). 
Hudson, W. H. The Story of the Renaissance (J>i.Y .,igi2,Cdi?,st\\,%i.so). A well- 
written volume. 

Hulme, E. M. The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Reforma- 
tion in Continental Europe (rev. ed., N. Y., 1915, Century Co., $2.50). The 
best work on the subject by an American scholar. 

* Joyce, T. A. Mexican Archceology (N. Y., 1914, Putnam, $4.00). 
South American Archceology (N. Y., 1912, Putnam, $3.50). 

Kerr, P. H., and Kerr, A. C. The Growth of the British Empire (N. Y., 1911, 

Longmans, Green, and Co., 50 cents). 
Oldham, J. B. The Renaissance (N. Y., 1912, Button, 35 cents). 
Seebohm, Frederic. The Era of the Protestant Revolution (N. Y., 1875, Scribner, 

$1.00). "Epochs of Modern History." 



EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY 



part II 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY 
MODERN TIMES 



CHAPTER XIII 



WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 
476-962 A.D.1 

102. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 A.D. 

We are not to suppose that the settlement of Germans 
within the Roman Empire ended with the deposition of Romu- 
Transition to Augustulus, near the close of the fifth century, 
the Middle The following centuries witnessed fresh invasions 
^^^^ and the estabHshment of new Germanic states. 

The study of these troubled times leads us from the classical 
world to the world of medieval Europe, from the history of 
antiquity to the history of the Middle Ages. 

The kingdom which Odoacer established on Italian soil did 
not long endure. It was soon overthrown by the Ostrogoths. 
The Ostro- time of the "fall" of Rome in 476 a.d. 

goths under they occupied a district south of the middle 
Theodonc Danube, which the government at Constantinople 
had hired them to defend. The Ostrogoths proved to be expen- 
sive and dangerous alHes. When, therefore, their chieftain, 
Theodoric, offered to lead his people into Italy and against 
Odoacer, the Roman emperor gladly sanctioned the undertaking. 

Theodoric led the Ostrogoths — women and children as well 

as warriors — across the Alps and came down to meet Odoacer 

and his soldiers in battle. After suffering several 
Ostrogothic , 
invasion of defeats, Odoacer shut himself up m the strong 

Italy, 488- fortress of Ravenna. Theodoric could not capture 
493 A.D. ^ 

the place and at last agreed to share with Odoacer 
the government of Italy, if the latter would surrender. The 
agreement was never carried into effect When Theodoric 
entered Ravenna, he invited Odoacer to a great feast and at 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter i, "Stories of the 
Lombard Kings " ; chapter ii, "Charlemagne." 

2g8 



The Ostrogoths in Italy 299 



its conclusion slew him in cold blood. Theodoric had now 
no rival iii Italy. 

Though Theodoric gained the throne by violence and treach- 
ery, he soon showed himself to be, as a ruler, wise, broad-minded, 
and humane. He had hved as a youth in the xheodoric 
iniperial court at Constantinople and there had king of Italy, 
become well acquainted with Roman ideas of law 
and order. Roman civilization impressed him; and he wished 




ToLiB OF Theodoric at Ravenna 



A two-storied marble building erected by Theodoric in imitation of a Roman tomb- 
Tlie roof is a single block of marble, 33 feet in diameter and weighing more than 300 tons. 
Theodoric's body was subsequently removed from its resting place, and the mausoleum was 
converted into a church. 

not to destroy but to preserve it. Theodoric reigned in Italy for 
thirty-three years, and during this time the country enjoyed 
unbroken peace and prosperity. 

The enlightened pohcy of Theodoric was exhibited in many 
ways. He governed Ostrogoths and Romans with equal con- 
sideration. He kept all the old offices, such as Theodoric's 
the senatorship and the consulate, and by pref- ^^^^^ 
erence filled them -with men of Roman birth. His chief 
counselors were Romans. A legal code, which he'^drew up for 
the use of Ostrogoths and Romans alike, contained only selec- 
tions from Roman law. He was remarkably tolerant and, in 



300 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



spite of the fact that the Ostrogoths were Arians/ was always 
ready to extend protection to Catholic Christians. Theod- 
oric patronized Hterature and gave high positions to Roman 
writers. He restored the cities of Italy, had the roads and 
aqueducts repaired, and so improved the condition of agri- 
culture that Italy, from a wheat-importing, became a wheat- 
exporting, country. At Ravenna, the Ostrogothic capital, 
Theodoric erected many notable buildings, including a palace, 
a mausoleum, and several churches. The remains of these 
structures are still to be seen. 

The influence of Theodoric reached far beyond Italy. He 
allied himself by marriage with most of the Germanic rulers 
Theodoric's West. His second wife was a Frankish 

foreign princess, his sister was the wife of a Vandal chief- 

tain, one of his daughters married a king of the 
Visigoths, and another daughter wedded a Burgundian king. 
Theodoric by these aUiances brought about friendly relations 
between the various barbarian peoples. It seemed, in fact, as 
if the Roman dominions in the West might again be united 
under a single ruler; as if the Ostrogoths might be the Ger- 
manic people to carry on the civilizing work of Rome. But 
no such good fortune was in store for Europe. 

Theodoric died in 526 a.d. The year after his death, a great 
emperor, Justinian, came to the throne at Constantinople. 
End of the J^^tinian had no intention of abandoning to the 
Ostrogothic Germans the rich provinces of Sicily and Italy, 
kingdom, 553 Although the Ostrogoths made a stubborn resist- 
ance to his armies, in the end they w^ere so com- 
pletely overcome that they agreed to withdraw from the Italian 
peninsula. The feeble remnant of their nation filed sadly 
through the passes of the Alps and, mingling with other bar- 
barian tribes, disappeared from history. 

103. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 A.D. 

The destruction of the Ostrogothic kingdom did not free 
Italy of the Germans. Soon after Justinian's death the country 

1 See page 236. 




Europe in the Sixth Century 



302 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



was again overrun, this time by the Lombards. The name of 
these invaders (in Latin, Langohardi) may have been derived 
Invasion of ^^^"^ beards that gave them such a fero- 

Italy by the cious aspect. The Lombards were the last of the 
Lombards Germanic peoples to quit their northern wilder- 
ness and seek new homes in sunny Italy. They seized the 
territory north of the river Po — a region ever since known 
as Lombardy — and established their capital at Pavia. The 
Lombards afterwards made many settlements in central and 
southern Italy, but never succeeded in subduing the entire 
peninsula. 

The rule of the Lombards at first bore hardly on Italy, which 
they treated as a conquered land. In character they seem to 
Lombard have been far less attractive than their predeces- 
rule in Italy g^j-g, the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Many of 
them were still heathen when they entered Italy and others 
were converts to the Arian ^ form of Christianity. In course 
of time, however, the Lombards accepted Roman Catholi- 
cism and adopted the customs of their subjects. They even 
forgot their Germanic language and learned to speak Latin. 
The Lombard kingdom lasted over two centuries, until it 
was overthrown by the Franks.^ 

The failure of the Lombards to conquer all Italy had im- 
portant results in later history. Sicily and the extreme southern 
Results of P^^^ Italian peninsula, besides large dis- 

the Lom- tricts containing the cities of Naples, Rome, 
bard mvasion q^^^^^ Venice, and Ravenna, continued to belong 
to the Roman Empire in the East. The rulers at Constanti- 
nople could not exercise effective control over their Italian 
possessions, now that these were separated from one another 
by the Lombard territories. The consequence was that Italy 
broke up into a number of small and practically independent 
states, which never combined into one kingdom until our own 
time. The ideal of a united Italy waited thirteen hundred 
years for its realization.^ 

1 See page 236. 2 See page 3og. 

3 The modem kingdom of Italy dates from 1861-1870 a.d. 



The Franks under Clovis and his Successors 303 



104. The Franks under Clovis and His Successors 

We have already met the Franks in their home on the lower 
Rhine, from which they pushed gradually into Roman terri- 
tory.^ In 486 A.D., just ten years after the deposi- Clovis, king 
tion of Romulus Augustulus, the Franks went ^ra^s 481- 
forth to conquer under Clo\ds,2 one of their chief- 511 A.D. 
tains. By overcoming the governor of Roman Gaul, in a 
battle near Soissons, Clovis destroyed the last vestige of impe- 
rial rule in the West and extended the Frankish dominions to 
the river Loire. Clovis then turned against his German neigh- 
bors. East of the Franks, in the region now known as Alsace, 
hved the Alamanni, a people whose name still survives in the 
French name of Germany.^ The Alamanni were defeated in a 
great battle near Strassburg (496 a.d.), and much of their 
territory was added to that of the Franks. Clovis subsequently 
conquered the Visigothic possessions between the Loire and 
the Pyrenees, and compelled the Burgundians to pay tribute. 
Thus Clovis made himseh supreme over nearly the whole of 
Gaul and even extended his authority to the other side of the 
Rhine. This great work entitles him to be called the founder 
of the French nation. 

Clovis reigned in western Europe as an independent king, 

but he acknowledged a sort of allegiance to the Roman emperor 

by accepting the title of honorary consul. Hence- Franks 

forth to the Gallo-Romans he represented the and the 

distant ruler at Constantinople. The Roman in- Gallo- 

... Romans 

habitants of Gaul were not oppressed; their cities 
were preserved; and their language and laws were undis- 
turbed. Clovis, as a statesman, may be compared with his 
eminent contemporary, Theodoric the Ostrogoth. 

The Franks were still a heathen people, when they began 

1 See page 245. 

2 His name is properly spelled Chlodweg, which later became Ludwig, and in 
French, Louis. 

3 Allemagne. On the other hand, the inhabitants of Gaul came to call their 
coimtry France and themselves Franqais after their conquerors, the Germanic 
Franks. 



304 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



their career of conquest. Clovis, however, had married a 

Burgundian princess, Clotilda, who was a devout Catholic and 

^, . . . an ardent advocate of Christianity. The story is 
Chnstianiza- i i . 

tion of the told how, when Clovis was hard-pressed by the 
Franks, 496 Alamanni at the battle of Strassburg, he vowed that 
if Clotilda's God gave him victory he would be- 
come a Christian. The Franks won, and Clovis, faithful to his 




vow, had himself baptized by St. Remi, bishop of Reims. 
''Bow down thy head," spoke the bishop, as the Frankish 
king approached the font, "adore what thou hast burned, 
burn what thou has adored." ^ With Clovis were baptized on 
that same day three thousand of his warriors. 

The conversion of Clovis was an event of the first importance. 
He and his Franks naturally embraced the orthodox CathoUc 
faith, which was that of his wife, instead of the Arian form 
of Christianity, which had been accepted by almost all the 

1 Gregory of Tours, Eistoria Francorum, ii, 31. 



The Franks under Charles Martel 305 

other Germanic invaders. Thus, by what seems the merest 
accident, Catholicism, instead of Arianism, became the religion 
of a large part of western Europe. More than significance 
this, the conversion of Clovis gained for the of Clovis's 
Frankish king and his successors the support of 
the Roman Church. The friendship between the popes and 
the Franks afterwards ripened into a close alliance which 
greatly influenced European history. 

The descendants of Clovis are called Merovingians.^ They 
occupied the throne of the Franks for nearly two hundred and 
fifty years. The annals of their reigns form an ^j^^ earlier 
unpleasant catalogue of bloody wars, horrible Merovingian 
murders, and deeds of treachery without number. 
Nevertheless, the earlier Merovingians were strong men, under 
whose direction the Frankish territory continued to expand, 
until it included nearly all of what is now France, Belgium, and 
Holland, besides a considerable part of Germany. 

The Frankish conquests differed in two important respects 
from those of the other Germanic peoples. In the first place, 
the Franks did not cut themselves off completely character of 
from their original homes. Th€y kept permanently the Frankish 
their territory in Germany, drawing from it con- 
tinual reinforcements of fresh German blood. In the second 
place, the Franks steadily added new German lands to their 
possessions. They built up in this way what was the largest 
and the most permanent of all the barbarian states founded on 
the ruins of the Roman Empire. 

105. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the Short 

After the middle of the seventh century the Frankish rulers, 
worn out by violence and excesses, degenerated into weakHngs, 
who reigned but did not rule. The actual manage- j^^gy 
ment of the state passed into the hands of officers, Merovingian 
called "mayors of the palace." They left to the ^^^^ 
kings Httle more than their title, their long hair, — the badge 
of royalty among the Franks, — and a scanty allowance for their 

1 From Merovech, grandfather of Clovis. 



3o6 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 

support. The later Merovingians, accordingly, are often known 
as the ''do-nothing kings." 

The most illustrious of these mayors was Charles, surnamed 
Martel, "the Hammer," from the terrible defeat which he 
Charles administered to the Mohammedans near Tours, 
Martel central France.^ Charles Martel was virtually 

a king, but he never ventured to set aside the Merovingian ruler 
and himself ascend the throne. This step was taken, however, 
by Charles's son, Pepin the Short. 

Before dethroning the last feeble "do-nothing," Pepin sought 
the approval of the bishop of Rome. The pope, without hesi- 
Pepin the tation, declared that it was only right that the 
Short be- man who had the real authority in the state 
of^the ^^"^ should have the royal title also. Pepin, accord- 
Franks, ingly, caused himself to be crowned king of the 
751 A.D. Franks, thus founding the Carolingian ^ dynasty 
(751 A.D.). Three years later Pope Stephen II came to Pepin's 
court and solemnly anointed the new ruler with holy oil, in 
accordance with ancient Jewish custom. The rite of anointing, 
something unknown to the Germans, gave to Pepin's coronation 
the sanction of the Roman Church. Henceforth the Frankish 
sovereigns called themselves "kings by the grace of God." 

Pepin was soon able to repay his great obhgation to the Roman 
Church by becoming its protector against the Lombards. 
"Donation of These barbarians, who were trying to extend their 
Pepin," rule in Italy, threatened to capture Rome and 
756 A.D. territory in the vicinity of that city, then 

under the control of the pope. Pepin twice entered Italy with 
his army, defeated the Lombards, and forced them to cede to 
Pope Stephen an extensive district lying between Rome and 
Ravenna. Pepin might have returned this district to the 
emperor at Constantinople, to whom it had belonged, but the 
Frankish king declared that he had not fought for the advantage 
of any man but for the weKare of his own soul. He decided, 



1 See page 379. 

2 So called from Pepin's son, Charles the Great (in Latin, Carolm Magnus). 
The French form of his name is Charlemagne. 



The Reign of Charlemagne 



307 



therefore, to bestow his conquests on St. Peter's representative, 
the pope. Before this time the bishops of Rome had owned 
much land in Italy and had acted as virtual sovereigns in 
Rome and its neighborhood. Pepin's gift, known as the " Dona- 
tion of Pepin," greatly increased their possessions, which came 
to be called the States of the Church. They remained in the 
hands of the popes until late in the nineteenth century.^ 

106. The Reign of Charlemagne, 768-814 A.D. 

Pepin was succeeded in 768 a.d. by his two sons, one of whom, 
Charlemagne, three years later became sole king of the Franks. 
Charlemagne reigned for nearly 
half a century, charle- 
and during this magne, the 
time he set his 
stamp on all later European 
history. His character and 
personality are famihar to us 
from a brief biography, writ- 
ten by his secretary, Einhard. 
Charlemagne, we learn, was 
a tall, square-shouldered, 
strongly built man, with bright, 
keen eyes, and an expression 
at once cheerful and dignified. 
Riding, hunting, and swim- 
ming were his favorite sports. 
He was simple in his tastes and 
very temperate in both food 
and drink. Except when in 
Rome, he wore the old Prank- 
ish costume, with high-laced 
boots, hnen tunic, blue cloak, 
and sword girt at his side. He was a clear, fluent speaker, 
used Latin as readily as his native tongue, and understood Greek 

1 In 1870 A.D. the States of the Church were added to the newly formed king- 
dom of Italy. 




Charlemagne 

Lateran Museum, Rome 

A mosaic picture, made during the lifetime 
of Charlemagne, and probably a fair likeness 
of him. 



3o8 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



when it was spoken. ''He also tried to learn to write and 
often kept his tablets and writing book under the pillow of 
his couch, that, when he had leisure, he might practice his 
hand in forming letters; but he made httle progress in this 
task, too long deferred and begun too late in Hfe." ^ For the 
times, however, Charlemagne was a well-educated man — by 
no means a barbarian. 

Much of Charlemagne's long life, almost to its close, was 
filled with warfare. He fought chiefly against the still-heathen 

Conquest peoples on the fron- 
and con- ^-^gj-s of the Frankish 

version of . . . 

the Saxons, realm. The subjuga- 
772-804 A.D. ^ion of the Saxons, 
who lived in the forests and marshes 
of northwestern Germany, took 
many years. Charlemagne at the 
head of a great army would invade 
their territory, beat them in battle, 
and receive their submission, only 
to find his work undone by a sudden 
rising of the liberty-loving natives, 
after the withdrawal of the Franks. 
Once when Charlemagne was exas- 
perated by a fresh revolt, he ordered 
forty-five hundred prisoners to be 
executed. This savage massacre 
was followed by equally severe laws, 
which threatened with death all Saxons who refused baptism or 
observed the old heathen rites. By such harsh means Charle- 
magne at length broke down the spirit of resistance among the 
people. All Saxony, from the Rhine to the Elbe, became a 
Christian land and a permanent part of the Frankish realm. 

Shortly after the beginning of the Saxon wars the king of the 
Franks received an urgent summons from the pope, who was 
again being threatened by his old enemies, the Lombards. 
Charlemagne led a mighty host across the Alps, captured 

1 Einhard, Vita Caroli Magni, 25, 




The Iron Crown of 
lombardy 



A fillet of iron, which, according to 
pious legend, had been beaten out of 
one of the nails of the True Cross. It 
came to the Lombards as a gift from 
Pope Gregory I, as a reward for their 
conversion to Roman Catholicism. Dur- 
ing the Middle Ages it was used to 
crown the German emperors kings of 
Italy. This precious relic is now kept 
in a church at Monza in northern Italy. 



The Reign of Charlemagne 309 

Pavia, where the Lombard ruler had taken refuge, and added 
his possessions to those of the Franks. Thus passed away one 
more of the Germanic states which had arisen on ^ 

Conquest 

the ruins of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne of the 

now placed on his own head the famous 'Tron 

Crown," and assumed the title of "King of the 

Franks and Lombards, and Patrician of the Romans." 

Charlemagne's conquests were not confined to Germanic 

peoples. He forced the wild Avars, wlio had advanced from 

the Caspian into the Danube vaUey, to acknowl- ^^^^^ 

edge his supremacy. He compelled various Sla\'ic magne's 

tribes, including the Bohemians, to pay tribute. 

^ ^ conquests 

He also invaded Spain and -^Tested from the Mos- 
lems the district between the Ebro River and the Pyrenees. 
By this last conquest Charlemagne may be said to have begun 
the recovery of the Spanish peninsula from Mohammedan rule.^ 

Charlemagne was a statesman, as weU as a warrior. He 
divided his wide dominions into counties, each one ruled by a 
count, who was expected to keep order and admin- charie- 
ister justice. The border districts, which lay magne's 
exposed to invasion, were organized into "marks," sovemment 
under the military super\ision of counts of the mark, or mar- 
graves (marquises). These ofl&cials had so much power and 
lived so far from the royal court that it was necessary for 
Charlemagne to appoint special agents, called missi dominici 
("the lord's messengers"), to maintain control over them. 
The missi were usually sent out in pairs, a layman and a bishop 
or abbot, in order that the one might serve as a check upon 
the other. They traveled from county to county, bearing the 
orders of their royal master and making sure that these orders 
were promptly obeyed. In this way Charlem^agne kept well 
informed as to the condition of affairs throughout his kingdom. 

Charlemagne made a serious effort to re\-ive classical culture 
in the West from the low state into which it had fallen dur- 



1 The rearguard of Charlemagne's army, when returning from Spain, was attacked 
and overwhekned by the mountaineers of the PjTenees. The incident gave rise 
to the famous French epic kno\sTi as the Song of Roland. 



3IO Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



ing the period of the invasions. We still possess a number of 

laws issued by this Frankish king for the promotion of educa- 

„ . , ^ tion. He founded schools in the monasteries and 
Revival of 

learning cathedrals, where not only the clergy but also the 
under Charle- common people might receive some training. 

He formed his whole court into a palace school, 
in which learned men from Italy, Spain, and England gave 




Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle 

Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) was the capital city and favorite residence of Charlemagne. The 
church which he built here was almost entirely destroyed by the Northmen in the tenth 
century. The octagonal building surmounted by a dome, which forms the central part of 
the present cathedral, is a restoration of the original structure. The marble columns, 
pavements, and mosaics of Charlemagne's church were brought by him from Ravenna. 



instruction to his own children and those of his nobles. The 
king himself often studied with them, under the direction of 
his good friend, Alcuin, an Englishman and the foremost scholar 
in western Europe. He had the manuscripts of Latin authors 
collected and copied, so that the knowledge preserved in 



Charlemagne 



books should not be forgotten. All this civiHzing work, to- 
gether with the peace and order which he maintained through- 
out a wide territory, made his reign the most brilHant period 
of the early Middle Ages. 

107. Charlemagne and the Revival of the 
Roman Empire, 800 A.D. 

Charlemagne, the champion of Christendom and the fore- 
most ruler in Europe, seemed to the men of his day the rightful 

successor of the Roman emperors. He had their ^ 

^ Coronation 
power, and now he was to have then- name. In of Charie- 

the year 800 a.d. the Frankish kin? visited Rome 

. . . . , . 800 A.D. 

to investigate certain accusations made against 
the pope, Leo III, by his enemies in the city. Charlemagne 
absolved Leo of ah wrong-doing and restored him to his office. 
Afterwards, on Christmas Day Charlemagne went to old St. 
Peter's Church, where the pope was saying Mass. As the 
king, dressed in the rich robes of a Roman patrician, knelt in 
prayer before the high altar, the pope suddenly placed on his 
head a golden crown, while aU the people cried out with one 
voice, "Long hfe and \dctory to Charles Augustus, the great 
and pacific emperor of the Romans, crowned by God!" 

Although Charlemagne appears to have been surprised by 
the pope's act, we know that he wished to become emperor. 
The imperial title would confer upon him greater Reasons for 
dignity and honor, though not greater power, than the 
he possessed as king of the Franks and of the 
Lombards. The pope, in turn, was glad to reward the man 
who had protected the Church and had done so much to 
spread the Cathohc faith among the heathen. The Roman 
people also welcomed the coronation, because they felt that 
the time had come for Rome to assume her old place as the 
capital of the world. To reject the eastern ruler, in favor of 
the great Frankish king, was an emphatic method of asserting 
Rome's independence of Constantinople. 

The coronation of Charlemagne was one of the most impor- 
tant events in medieval history. It might be thought a smaU 



312 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



matter that he should take the imperial tide, when he already- 
exercised imperial sway throughout western Europe. But 
Significance Charlemagne's contemporaries beUeved that the 
of the old Roman Empire had now been revived, and 

coronation ^j^^^ ^ German king now sat on the throne once 
occupied by Augustus and Constantine. Henceforth there was 
established in the West a line of Roman emperors which lasted 
until the opening of theTiineteenth century. ^ 

Charlemagne's empire was not in any true sense a continua- 
tion of the Roman Empire. It did not include the dominions 
Charle- East, over which the emperors at Constan- 

magne's tinople were to reign for centuries. Moreover, 
empire Charlemagne and his successors on the throne had 

Httle in common with the old rulers of Rome, who spoke Latin, 
administered Roman law, and regarded the Germans as among 
their most dangerous enemies. Charlemagne's empire was, in 
fact, largely a new creation. 

108. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 A.D. 

The empire of Charlemagne did not long remain intact. 
So vast was its extent and so unlike were its inhabitants in 
After Charle- race, language, and customs that it could be 
magne managed only by a ruler of the greatest energy 

and strength of will. Unfortunately, the successors of Charle- 
magne proved to be too weak for the task of maintaining peace 
and order. Western Europe now entered on a long period of 
confusion and violence, during which Charlemagne's posses- 
sions broke up into separate and warring kingdoms. 

Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, who became emperor in 
814 A.D., was a well-meaning but feeble ruler, better fitted for 
Treaty of quiet hfe of a monastery than for the throne. 

Verdun, He could not control his rebeUious sons, who, 
843 A.D. ^^^^ during his lifetime, fought bitterly over their 
inheritance. The unnatural strife, which continued after his 
death, was temporarily settled by a treaty concluded at the 

1 The title of "Holy Roman Emperor," assumed by the later successors of 
Charlemagne, was kept by them till 1806 a.d. 



Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire 313 



city of Verdun. According to its terms Lothair, the eldest 
brother, received Italy and the imperial title, together with a 
narrow stretch of land along the valleys of the Rhine and the 
Rhone, between the North Sea and the Mediterranean. Louis 
and Charles, the other brothers, received kingdoms lying to the 
east and west, respectively, of Lothair's territory. The Treaty 




The Frakkish Dominions as dfv'ided by the Treaties 
OF Verdun (843 A.D.) and Mersen (870 A.D.) 

of Verdun may be said to mark the first stage in the dissolution 
of the Carolingian Empire. 

A second treaty, made at Mersen in Holland, was entered 
into by Louis and Charles, after the death of their brother 
Lothair. They divided between themselves Lo- ^^.^^^y 
thair's kingdom north of the Alps, leaving to his Mersen, 
young son the possession of Italy and the empty ^"^^ 
title of "emperor." The Treaty of Mersen may be said to 
mark the second stage in the dissolution of the Carolingian 
Empire. That empire, as such, had now ceased to exist. 



314 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



The territorial arrangements made by the treaties of Verdun 
and Mersen foreshadowed the future map of western Europe. 
Importance 'Ea.st Frankish kingdom of Louis, inhabited 

of the two almost entirely by Germanic peoples, was to 
treaties develop into modern Germany. The West Frank- 
ish kingdom of Charles, inhabited mainly by descendants of 
Romanized Gauls, was to become modern France. Lothair's 
kingdom, separated into two parts by the Alps, never became 
a national state. Italy, indeed, might be united under one 
government, but the long, narrow strip north of the Alps had 
no unity of race, no common language, and no national bound- 
aries. It was fated to be broken into fragments and to be 
fought over for centuries by its stronger neighbors. Part of 
this territory now forms the small countries of Belgium, Hol- 
land, and Switzerland, and another part, known as Alsace and 
Lorraine,^ still remains a bone of contention between France 
and Germany. 

Even had Charlemagne been followed by strong and able 
rulers, it would have been a difficult matter to hold the empire 
Renewed together in the face of the fresh series of barbarian 
barbarian inroads which began immediately after his death, 
invasions r^j^^ Mohammedans, though checked by the Franks 
at the battle of Tours,^ continued to be dangerous enemies. 
They ravaged southern France, Sicily, and parts of Italy. The 
piratical Northmen from Denmark and Norway harried the 
coast of France and made inroads far beyond Paris. They also 
penetrated into western Germany, saihng up the Rhine in their 
black ships and destroying such important towns as Cologne 
and Aix-la-Chapelle. Meanwhile, eastern Germany lay exposed 
to the attacks of the Slavs, whom Charlemagne had defeated 
but not subdued. The Magyars, or Hungarians, were also 
dreaded foes. Their wild horsemen entered Europe from the 
plains of Asia and, like the Huns and Avars to whom they were 
probably related, spread devastation far and wide. A great 

1 The French name Lorraine and the German name Lothringen are both derived 
from the Latin title of Lothair's kingdom — Lqtharii regnum. 

2 See page 306. 



Germany under Saxon Kings 315 

part of Europe thus suffered from invasions almost as destruc- 
tive as those which had brought ruin to the old Roman 
world. 

109. Germany under Saxon Kings, 919-973 A.D. 

The tenth century saw another movement toward the resto- 
ration of law and order. The civilizing work of Charlemagne 
was taken up by German kings, not of the old German 
Prankish stock, but belonging to that Saxon people stem- 
which had opposed Charlemagne so long and 
bitterly. Saxony was one of the five great territorial states, 
or stem-duchies, as they are usually called, into which Germany 
w^as then divided.^ Germany at that time extended only as 
far east as the river Elbe, beyond which lay the territory occu- 
pied by half-civiHzed Slavic tribes. 

The rulers of the stem-duchies enjoyed practical independ- 
ence, -though they had recognized some king of Germany ever 
since the Treaty of Verdun. Early in the tenth Elective 
century the Carolingian dynasty died out in Ger- kingship of 
many, and the German nobles then proceeded to ^^^^^^^ 
elect their own kings. Their choice fell first upon Conrad, 
duke of Franconia, but he had Httle authority outside his own 
duchy. A stronger man was required to keep the peace among 
the turbulent nobles and to repel the invaders of Germany. 
Such a man appeared in the person of Henry, duke of Saxony, 
who, after Conrad's death, was chosen king. 

Henry I, called the Fowler, because he was fond of hunting 

birds, spent the greater part of his reign in wars against the 

Slavs, Magyars, and other invaders. He con- „ . 

' ' Reign of 

quered from the Slavs the territory afterwards Henry the 

known as Brandenburg. This country was to gg^^^^J)^^^ 
furnish Germany, in later centuries, with its pres- 
ent dynasty — the Hohenzollerns.^ He occupied the southern 
part of Denmark (Schleswig) and Christianized it. He also 



1 The others were Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and Lorraine. 

2 The Hohenzollerns became electors of Brandenburg in 1415 A.D., kings of 
Prussia in 1701, and emperors of Germany in 1871. 



3i6 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



recovered for Germany Lorraine, a district which remained in 
German hands until the eighteenth century. 

Henry the Fowler was succeeded by his son, Otto I, whom 
history knows as Otto the Great. He well deserved the title. 
Re'gn of ^^^^ Charlemagne, Otto presented the aspect of 
Otto the a born ruler. He is described as being tall and 
^^s^AD^^" commanding in presence, strong and vigorous of 
body, and gifted with great charm of manner. In 
his bronzed face shone clear and sparkling eyes, and down his 
breast hung a long, thick beard. Though subject to violent 
outbursts of temper, he was liberal to his 
friends and just to his foes. Otto was a 
man of immense energy and ambition, 
with a high conception of his duties as a 
sovereign. His reign forms one of the 
most notable epochs in German history. 

Otto continued Henry's work of de- 
fending Germany from the foes which 
Otto and threatened to overrun that 
the Magyars country. He won his most 
conspicuous success against the Magyars, 
who suffered a crushing defeat on the 
banks of the river Lech in Bavaria (955 
A.D.). These barbarians now ceased their raids and retired to 
the lands on the middle Danube which they had seized from 
the Slavs. Here they settled down, accepted Christianity from 
the Roman Church, and laid the foundations of the kingdom 
of Hungary.^ As a protection against future Magyar inroads 
Otto established the East Mark. This region afterwards rose 
to great importance under the name of Austria. 

Otto was an excellent ruler of Germany. He made it his 
business to strengthen the royal authority by weakening that 
of the stem-dukes. He had to fight against them on more than 

1 The Magyar settlement in central Europe had the important result of divid- 
ing the Slavic peoples into three groups. Those who remained south of the Danube 
(Serbians, Croatians, etc.) were henceforth separated from the northwestern Slavs 
(Bohemians. Moravians, and Poles) and from the eastern Slavs (Russians). See 
the map facing page 326. 




Ring Seal or Otto 
THE Great 

The inscription reads 
Oddo Rex. 



Otto the Great 



317 



one occasion, for they regarded themselves almost as independ- 
ent kings. Otto was able to keep them in check, but the rulers 
who followed him were less successful in this re- otto and the 
spect. The struggle between the kings and their stem-dukes 
powerful nobles formed a constant feature of the medieval 
history of Germany. 

110. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the 
Roman Empire, 962 A.D. 

Otto the Great is not to be remembered only as a German 
king. His reign was also noteworthy in the history of Italy. 
The country at this time was hopelessly divided Condition of 
between rival and contending peoples. The 
emperor at Constantinople controlled the southern extremity of 
the peninsula. The Mohammedans held Sicily and some cities 
on the mainland. The pope ruled at Rome and in the States 
of the Church. A so-called king of Italy still reigned in Lom- 
bardy, but he could not manage the powerful counts, dukes, and 
marquises, who were virtually independent within their own 
domains. Even the imperial title died out, and now there was 
no longer a Roman emperor in the West. 

The deplorable condition of Italy invited interference from 

abroad. Following in the footsteps of Charlemagne, Otto the 

Great led two expeditions across the Alps, assumed „ 

Coronation 

the ''Iron Crown" ^ of Lombardy, and then pro- of Otto the 
ceeded to Rome, where he secured the pope (John Sf^^J' 
XII) against the latter's enemies in that city. 
Otto's reward was the same as Charlemagne's. On Candlemas 
Day ,2 962 A.D., the grateful pope crowned him Roman emperor. 

The coronation of Otto the Great seemed to his contem- 
poraries a necessary and beneficial act. They still believed 
that the Roman Empire was suspended, not Meaning 
extinct; and that now, one hundred and fifty of the 
years after Charlemagne, the occasion was oppor- 
tune to revive the name and power associated with the golden 
age of the first Frankish emperor. Otto's ardent spirit, one 

1 See the illustration, page 308. 2 February 2d. 



3i8 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



may well believe, was fired with this vision of imperial sway 
and the renewal of a tide around which clustered so many 
memories of success and glory. 

But the outcome of Otto's restoration of the Roman Empire 
was good neither for Italy nor for Germany. It became the 




Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 A.D, 



rule, henceforth, that the man whom the German nobles chose 

as their king had a claim, also, to the Italian crown and the 

imperial title. The efforts of the German kings 
Ultimate ^ , i i . i . i t i • • 

results of to make good this claim led to their constant m- 

terference in the affairs of Italy. They treated 
coronation . i • i i i 

that country as a conquered province which had 

no right to a national life and an independent government 

under its own rulers. At the same time they neglected Germany 



The Anglo-Saxons in Britain 



319 



and failed to keep their powerful territorial lords in subjection. 
Neither Italy nor Germany, in consequence, could become a 
unified, centralized state, such as was formed in France and 
England during the later Middle Ages. 

The empire of Charlemagne, restored by Otto the Great, 
came to be called in later centuries the "Holy Roman Empire." 
The title points to the idea of a world monarchy ^j^^ ^oiy 
— the Roman Empire — and a world religion — Roman 
Roman Christianity — united in one institution. ^^^^^^ 
This magnificent idea was never fuUy realized. The popes and 
emperors, instead of being bound to each other by the closest 
ties, were more generally enemies than friends. A large part 
of medieval history was to turn on this conflict between the 
Empire and the Papacy.^ 

111. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 A.D. 

From the history of Continental Europe we now turn to 
the history of Britain. That island had been overrun by the 
Germanic barbarians after the middle of the fifth Anglo-Saxon 
century.^ They are commonly known as Anglo- conquest of 
Saxons, from the names of their two principal 
peoples, the Angles and Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of 
Britain was a slow process, which lasted at least one hundred 
and fifty years. The invaders followed the rivers into the 
interior and gradually subdued more than a half of what is 
now England, comprising the fertile plain district in the southern 
and eastern parts of the island. 

Though the Anglo-Saxons probably destroyed many flourish- 
ing cities and towns of the Romanized Britons, it seems Hkely 
that the conquerors spared the women, with whom Nature of 
they intermarried, and the agricultural laborers, conquest 
whom they made slaves. Other natives took refuge in the hill 
regions of western and northern Britain, and here their de- 
scendants still keep up the Celtic language and traditions. The 
Anglo-Saxons regarded the Britons with contempt, naming 
them Welsh, a word which means one who talks gibberish. 

1 See pages 455-462. 2 See page 246. 



320 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



The antagonism between the two peoples died out in the course 
of centuries; conquerors and conquered intermingled; and 
an EngHsh nation, partly Celtic and partly Germanic, came 
into being. 

The Anglo-Saxons started to fight one another before they 
ceased fighting their common enemy, the Britons. Throughout 



Anglo-Saxon Drinking Horn 

Horn of Ulphus (Wulf) in the cathedral of York. The old English were heavy drinkers, 
chiefly of ale and mead. The evening meal usually ended with a drinking bout. 

the seventh and eighth centuries, the Anglo-Saxon states were 

engaged in almost constant struggles, either for increase of 

The seven territory or for supremacy. The kingdoms farthest 

kingdoms in east — Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia — • 

Britain found their expansion checked by other kingdoms 

— Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex — which grew up in the 

interior of the island. Each of these three stronger states 

gained in turn the leading place. 

The beginning of the supremacy of Wessex dates from the 

reign of Egbert. He had lived for some years as an exile at the 

Egbert and court of Charlemagne, from whom he must have 

the suprem- learned valuable lessons of war and statesmanship, 
acy of 

Wessex, 802- After returning from the Continent, Egbert became 
839 A.D. j^jj^g Qf Wessex and gradually forced the rulers of 
the other states ta acknowledge him as overlord. Though 
Egbert was never directly king of all England, he began the 
work of uniting the Anglo-Saxons under one government. His 
descendants have occupied the English throne to the present day. 

When the Germans along the Rhine and the Danube crossed 
the frontiers and entered the western provinces, they had 



The Anglo-Saxons in Britain 



321 




322 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



already been partially Romanized. They understood enough of 
Roman civilization to appreciate it and to desire to preserve 
Anglo-Saxon it. The situation was quite different with the 
Britain Anglo- Saxons. Their original home lay in a part 

of Germany far beyond the borders of the Roman Empire 
and remote from the cultural influences of Rome. Coming to 
Britain as barbarians, they naturally introduced their own 
language, laws, and customs wherever they settled. Much of 
what the Anglo-Saxons brought with them still lives in England, 
and from that country has spread to the United States and the 
vast English colonies beyond the seas. The EngHsh language is 
less indebted to Latin than any of the Romance languages,^ 
and the Common law of England owes much less to Roman 
law than do the legal systems of Continental Europe. England, 
indeed, looks to the Anglo-Saxons for some of the most charac- 
teristic and important elements of her civilization. 

112. Christianity in the British Isles 

The Anglo-Saxons also brought to Britain their heathen 
faith. Christianity did not come to them until the close 
Preparation sixth century. At this time more or less 

for intercourse had sprung up between the people of 

Christianity jr^^^^^ ^^^^^ nearest to the Continent, and the 
Franks in Gaul. Ethelbert, the king of Kent, had even married 
the Frankish princess, Bertha. He allowed his Christian wife 
to bring a bishop to her new^ home and gave her the deserted 
church of St. Martin at Canterbury as a place of worship. 
Queen Bertha's fervent desire for the conversion of her husband 
and his people prepared the way for an event of first impor- 
tance in English history — the mission of Augustine. 

The pope at this time was Gregory I, better known, from his 
services to the Roman Church, as Gregory the Great.^ The 
Mission of kingdom of Kent, with its Christian queen, must 
Augustine, have seemed to him a promising field for mission- 
597 A.D. enterprise. Gregory, accordingly, sent out the 

monk Augustine with forty companions to carry the Gospel to 

1 See page 208. 2 See page 350. 



Christianity in the British Isles 323 





the heathen Enghsh. The king of Kent, aheady well disposed 
toward the Christian faith, greeted the missionaries kindly and 
told them that they were free to convert whom they would. 
Before long he and his court embraced Christianity, and the 
people of Kent soon foUoAved the royal example. The monks 
were assigned a residence in Canterbury, a city which has ever 
since remained the reHgious capital of England. From Kent 
Christianity in its Ro- 
man form gradually 
spread into the other 
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. 

Augustine and his 
monks Vv'ere not the 
first mis- Celtic 
sionaries Christianity 
to Britain. Roman 
soldiers, merchants, and 
officials had introduced 
Christianity among the 
Britons as early as the 
second century. Dur- 
ing the fifth century 
the famous St. Patrick had carried Christianity to the 
heathen Irish. The Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain drove 
many Christians to Ireland, and that island in the sixth and 
seventh centuries became a center from which devoted monks 
went forth to labor in western Scotland and northern Britain.^ 
Here they came in contact with the Roman missionaries. 

The Celtic Christians followed some customs which differed 
from those observed by Roman Christians. They computed 
the date on which Easter fell according to a Differences 

svstem unhke that of the Romans. They per- between 
- . ^ Celtic and 

mitted their priests to marry; the Romans for- Roman 

bade the practice. Their monks shaved the front' Christianity 
of the head from ear to ear as a tonsure, while Roman monks 

1 The enthusiasm of the Celtic Christians reached such proportions that it 
swept back upon the Continent. In the seventh and eighth centuries Irish mission- 



Martin's Church, Canterbury 



The present church, dating from the thirteenth cen- 
tury, occupies the site of a chapel built before the arrival 
of Augustine. The walls still contain some of the Roman 
bricks used in the origioal structure. St. Martin's 
Church was the scene of the earliest work of Augustine 
in Canterbury. 



324 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 

shaved the top of the head, leaving a ''crown of thorns." These 
differences may not seem very important, but they were enough 
to prevent the cooperation of Celtic and Roman missionaries 
for the conversion of the heathen. 




Canterbury Cathedral 

The choir dates from the twelfth century, the nave, transepts, and central tower, from 
the fifteenth century. One of the two towers at the west front was built in 1834-1840 a.d. 
The beautiful stained glass in the windows of the choir belongs to the thirteenth century. 



The rivalry between Celtic and Roman Christians was 
finally settled at a church gathering, or synod, called by the 
Synod of ^^^S Northumbria at Whitby. The main con- 
Whitby, troversy at this synod concerned the proper date 
664 A.D. Easter. In the course of the debate it was 

asserted that the Roman custom had the sanction of St. Peter, 
to whom Christ had intrusted the keys of heaven. This state- ' 
ment was enough for the Northumbrian king, who thereupon 
decided in favor of the Roman claim, declaring that he would 

aries worked among the heathen Germans and founded monasteries in Burgundy, 
Lombardy, and southern Germany (now Switzerland). 



The Fusion of Germans and Romans 325 



not oppose St. Peter, "lest when I come before the gates of the 

kingdom of heaven, he who holds the keys should not open to 

me.''' ^ The representatives of the Celtic Church then withdrew 

from England, leading the held clear for Roman missionaries. 

The decision of the S\mod of Whitby in favor of Rome meant 

that all England henceforth would recognize the pope's author- 

itv in rehsious matters. It remained a Roman ^, ^ . . , 

... The British 
Cathohc country until the time of the Retormation, isies become 

nearlv nine hundred vears later.- The Celtic 5°^^ 
. ' . . ' . Cathohc 

Christians in Ireland and Scotland also in the 

course of time became the devoted children of the Roman 
Church. 

113. The Fusion of Germans and Romans 

We have now followed the fortunes of the Germans for five 
centuries from the end of the Roman Empire in the West. 
]\Iost of their kingdoms, it has been seen, were not 
permanent. The Visigothic and Burgundian do- Germanic 
minions in Gaul \-ielded to the Franks, and those 
of the Visigoths in Spain, to the ^lohammedan Arabs. ^ The 
Vandal possessions in Xorth Africa were regained by the em- 
perors at Constantinople.' The rule of the Ostrogoths in Italy 
endiu-ed for only sixty years and that of the Lombards passed 
away after two centuries. The kingdoms estabhshed by the 
Franks and the Anglo-Saxons alone developed into lasting 
states. 

But even where the Germans did not found perm.anent king- 
doms, they mingled with the subject provincials and adopted 
much of the old Roman civiHzation. The fusion 
of the two peoples naturally required a long time, ^"J^e^*^^^ 
being scarcely completed before the middle of the fusion of 
tenth century. It was hindered, in the first place. ^^d^R^Lans 
by the desire of the Germans to secure the lands 
of the Romans. Wherever the barbarians settled, they appropri- 

1 Bade, Eistoria ecclesiastica, iii, 25. 

2 The separation from Rome occurred in 1534 a.d., during the reign of Henry 
\T[I. 

J See page 37S. « See page 330. 



326 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



ated a large part of the agricultural soil. How much they took 
varied in different countries. The Ostrogoths seem to have 
seized one- third of the land in Italy; the Visigoths, two- thirds 
of that in Gaul and Spain; the Anglo-Saxons, perhaps all the 
tillable soil of Britain. It could not but be galling to the Romans 
to surrender their farms to the barbarians. In the second 
place, the Germans often assessed heavy taxes on the Romans, 
which they themselves refused to pay. Tax-paying seemed to 
the Germans a mark of servitude. In the third place, a barrier 
between the two peoples arose from the circumstance that 
each had its particular law. For several centuries following the 
invasions there was one law for the Romans — that which they 
had enjoyed under the empire — and another law for the Ger- 
mans — their old tribal customs. After the Germans had 
lived for some time in contact with the Romans they wrote out 
their laws in the Latin language. These "Laws of the Bar- 
barians" still survive and throw much light on their early 
beliefs and manners. 

In spite of the hindrances to fusion, it seems true that the 
Germans and the Romans felt no great dislike for each other 
and that, as a rule, they freely intermingled. 

Conditions Certain conditions directly favored this result, 
favoring 

fusion First, many Germans had found their way within 

the empire as hired soldiers, colonists, and 
slaves, long before* the invasions began. Second, the Ger- 
manic invaders came in relatively small numbers. Third, 
the Germans entered the Roman world not as destroyers, 
but as homeseekers. They felt a real reverence for Roman 
civilization. And fourth, some of the principal Germanic 
nations, including the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals, 
were already Christians at the time of their invasions, while 
other nations, such as the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, were 
afterwards converted to Christianity. As long, however, as 
most of the Germans remained Arian Christians ^ their belief 
stood in the way of friendly intercourse with the Roman 
provincials, who had accepted the Catholic faith. 

^ See page 236. 



The Fusion of Germans and Romans 327 



If western Europe during the early Middle Ages presented 
a scene of violence and confusion while the Germans were set- 
thng in their new homes, a different picture was 

Contrast 

afforded by eastern Europe. Here the Roman between 
Empire still survived and continued to uphold ^^g^^^^ 
for centuries the Roman tradition of law and 
order. The history of that empire forms the theme of the 
following chapter. 

Studies 

I. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Charlemagne, 
distinguishing his hereditary possessions from those which he acquired by conquest. 

2. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Otto the Great, 

3. What events are connected with the following places: Soissons; Mersen; 
Whitby; Reims; Verdun; Canterbury; and Strassburg? 4. What is the historical 
importance of Augustine, Henry the Fowler, Pepin the Short, Charles Martel, 
Egbert, and Ethelbert? 5. Give dates for the following events: battle of Tours; 
crowning of Charlemagne as emperor; crowning of Otto the Great as emperor; 
deposition of Romulus Augustulus; Augustine's mission to England; and the 
Treaty of Verdun. 6. Explain the following expressions: "do-nothing kings"; 
missi dominici; Holy Roman Empire; and "Donation of Pepin." 7. Why was 
the extinction of the Ostrogothic kingdom a misfortune for Italy? 8. Why did 
Italy remain for so many centuries after the Lombard invasion merely "a geograph- 
ical expression"? g. What difference did it make whether Clovis became an Arian 
or a Catholic? 10. What events in the Uves of Clovis and Pepin the Short contrib- 
uted to the alliance between the Franks and the popes? 11. What provinces of 
the Roman Empire in the West were not included within the limits of Charle- 
magne's empire? 12. What coimtries of modem Europe are included within the 
limits of Charlemagne's empire? 13. Compare the missi dominici with the "eyes 
and ears" of Persian kings. 14. What is the origin of the word "emperor"? 
As a title distinguish it from that of '" king." 15. Why has Lothair's kingdom 
north of the Alps been called the "strip of trouble"? 16. In what parts of the 
British Isles are Celtic languages still spoken? 17. How did the four English 
counties, Sussex, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, receive their names? 18. What 
was the importance of the Synod of Whitby? 19. Set forth the conditions which 
hindered, and those which favored, the fusion of Germans and Romans. 



CHAPTER XIV 



EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MffiDLE AGES, 
395-1095 A.D. 

114. The Roman Empire in the East 

The Roman Empire in the West moved rapidly to its ''fall" 
in 476 A.D., at the hands of the Germanic invaders. The Roman 
„ . , , Empire in the East, though threatened by enemies 

Survival of . ^ _ ' ^ 1 ^ / 

the Roman from Without and weakened by civil conflicts 

Empire in from within, endured for more than a thousand 
the East . 

years. Until the middle of the eleventh century 

it was the strongest state in Europe, except during the reign 

of Charlemagne, when the Frankish kingdom eclipsed it. Until 

the middle of the fifteenth century it preserved the name, the 

civilization, and some part of the dominions, of ancient Rome.^ 

The long life of the Roman Empire in the East is one of the 

marvels of history. Its great and constant vitahty appears 

the more remarkable, when one considers that 
Ss^s^urvival easily defensible frontiers, contained 

many different races with httle in common, and 
on all sides faced hostile states. The empire survived so 
long, because of its vast wealth and resources, its despotic, 
centralized government, the strength of its army, and the 
almost impregnable position occupied by Constantinople, the 
capital city. 

The changing fortunes of the empire during the Middle Ages 

are reflected in some of the names by which it is often known. 

The term ''Greek Empire" expresses the fact that 

Character state became more and more Greek in char- 

of the 

empire acter, owmg to the loss, first of the western 

provinces in the fifth century, and then of Syria 
and Eg3^t in the seventh century. Another term — "Byzan- 

1 The fall of the empire came in 1453 A.D., when Constantinople was captured 
by the Ottoman Turks. 

328 



The Roman Empire in the East 329 

tine Empire" — appropriately describes the condition of the 
state in still later times, when its possessions were reduced to 
Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and the territory in the 
neighborhood of that city. But through all this period the 
rulers at Constantinople regarded themselves as the true suc- 
cessors of Augustus, Diocletian, and Constantine. They never 
admitted the right of Charlemagne and Otto the Great to 
estabhsh a rival Roman Empire in western Europe.^ They 
claimed to be the only legitimate heirs of Old Rome. 

115. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 A.D. 

The history of the Roman Empire in the East, for more than 
one hundred years after the death of Theodosius, is unevent- 
ful. His successors, though unable to prevent ^ 
, ^ .. -ri 11 Successors 

the Germans from seizmg Italy and the other of Theodo- 

western provinces, managed to keep their own ggT'A^D ~ 
dominions intact. The eastern provinces escaped 
the fate of those in the West, because they were more populous 
and offered greater obstacles to the barbarian invaders, w^ho 
followed the line of least resistance. The gradual recovery 
of the empire in strength and warHke energy prepared the 
way for a really eminent ruler — Justinian. 

Justinian is described as a man of noble bearing, simple in 
his habits, affable in speech, and easy of approach to all his 
subjects. Historians have often drawn attention justinian 
to his wonderful activity of mind and power of and 
steady industry. So great was his zeal for work 
that one of his courtiers called him ''the emperor who never 
sleeps." Possessed of large ideas and inspired by the majesty 
of Rome, Justinian aimed to be a great conqueror, a great 
lawgiver, and a great restorer of civilization. His success 
in whatever he undertook must be ascribed in part to his 
wife, Theodora, whom he associated with himself on the throne. 
Theodora, strong of mind and wise in counsel, made a worthy 
helpmate for Justinian, who more than once declared that in 
affairs of state he had consulted his "revered wife." 



1 See pages 311-312, 317-318. 



330 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



It was the ambition of Justinian to conquer the Germanic 
kingdoms which had been formed out of the Mediterranean 
Conquests of provinces. In this task he rehed chiefly on the 
Justinian mihtary genius of BeHsarius, one of the world's 
foremost commanders. Behsarius was able in one short cam- 
paign to destroy the Vandal kingdom in North Africa.^ The 
Vandals by this time had lost their early vigor; they made but a 
feeble resistance; and their Roman subjects welcomed Beli- 




A Mosaic of Justinian 

A mosaic dating from 547 a.d., in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna. 
It shows the emperor (in the center) with a bishop, his suite, and im- 
perial guards. The picture probably gives us a fair idea of Justinian's 
appearance, though it represents him as somewhat younger than he was 
at the time. 

sarins as a deliverer. Justinian awarded a triumph to his 
victorious general, an honor which for five centuries emperors 
alone had enjoyed. The conquest of North Africa, together 
with the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, was followed by the 
overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Sicily and Italy.^ Jus- 
tinian also recovered from the Visigoths ^ the southeastern 
part of Spain. He could now say with truth that the Medi- 
terranean was once more a Roman sea.^ 

1 See page 245. 2 See page 300. ^ See page 244. * See the map, page 301. 



The Reign of Justinian 



i 



The conquests of Justinian proved to be less enduring than 
his work as a lawgiver. Until his reign the sources of Roman 
law, including the legislation of the popular assem- codification 
blies, the decrees of the Senate, the edicts of the of Roman 
praetors and emperors, and the decisions of learned 
lawyers, had never been completely collected and arranged in 
scientific form. Justinian appointed a commission of legal 
scholars to perform this task. The result of their labors, in 
which the emperor himself assisted, was the publication of the 
Corpus Juris Civilis, the "Body of Civil Law." Under this 
form the Roman principles of jurisprudence have become the 
foundation of the legal systems of modern Italy, Spain, France, 
Germany, and other European countries. These principles 
even influenced the Common law of England, which has been 
adopted by the United States.^ The Corpus Juris Civilis, 
because of this widespread influence, is justly regarded as one 
of Rome's most important gifts to the world. 

Justinian's claim to the title of Great" rests also on his civi- 
lizing work. He wished to restore the prosperity, as well as 
the provinces, of the empire. During his reign civilizing 
roads, bridges, and aqueducts were repaired, and work of 
commerce and agriculture were encouraged. It J^^*""^ 
was at this time that two Christian missionaries brought from 
China the eggs of the silkworm, and introduced the manu- 
facture of silk in Europe. As a builder Justinian gained special 
fame. The edifices which he caused to be raised throughout 
his dominions included massive fortifications on the exposed 
frontiers, splendid palaces, and many monasteries and churches. 
The most noteworthy monument to his piety is the church 
of Sancta Sophia ^ at Constantinople, now used as a Moham- 
medan mosque. By his conquests, his laws, and his buildings, 
Justinian revived for a time the waning glory of imperial 
Rome. 

1 Roman law still prevails in the province of Quebec and the state of Louis- 
iana, territories formerly under French control, and in all the Spanish-American 
countries. 

2 In Greek, Hagia Sophia, "Holy Wisdom." 



332 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



116. The Empire and its Asiatic Foes 

The Roman. Empire in the East did not long remain at the 
pinnacle of greatness to which Justinian had raised it. His 
After conquests, indeed, weakened rather than strength- 

Justinian ened the empire, since now there were much more 
extensive frontiers to defend. Within half a century after his 
death it was attacked both in Europe and in Asia. The Lom- 



25° 



45° 



f 1 Lands of the Eastern emperors 

1 1 before 960 A.D. 

I 1 The lands conquered between 

I 1 960 A.D. and 1045 A.D. 

' ^ ^' — 1' conquests 




20° Longitude 25° East from 30° Greenwich 35° 



The Roman Empire in the East 
DURING the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 



bards ^ soon seized Italy, and in the East the Persians renewed 
their contest against the Roman power. 

The struggle with the Persians was an inheritance from earlier 
times.^ Under an ambitious king, Chosroes II, the Persians 
overran all the Asiatic provinces of the empire. 
A savior arose, however, in the person of the 
Roman emperor, Heraclius (610-641 a.d.). His brilhant 
campaigns against Chosroes partook of the nature of a crusade, 
or ''holy war," for the Persians had violated the Holy Sepulcher 
at Jerusalem and had stolen away the True Cross, the most 



Persians 



1 See page 302. 



See page 219. 



The Empire and its Asiatic Foes 



333 



sacred relic of Chjistendom. Heraclius recovered all his prov- 
inces, but only at the cost of a bloody struggle which drained 
them of men and money and helped to make them fall easy 
victims to foes stiU more terrible than the Persians. These were 
the Arabs. 

HeracHus had not closed his reign before he saw all his vic- 
tories undone by the advance of the Arabs. The first wave of 
invasion tore away Syria and Eg}^t from the ^^^^ 
empire, penetrated Asia Minor, and reached the 
shores of the Bosporus. Repulsed before the walls of Con- 
stantinople, the Arabs carried their arms to the West and seized 
North Africa, Spain, part of southern Italy, and the Mediter- 
ranean islands. Asia Elinor and the Balkan peninsula still 
held out, however, and during the tenth century a line of able 
rulers at Constantinople succeeded in winning back some of 
their lost provinces. 

During the eleventh century the empire had to face new 

enemies. These were the Seljuk Turks,^ fierce nomads from 

the steppes beyond the Caspian. After their „ , ^ , 
• ^ r 1 • 1 Seljuk Turks 

conversion to Mohammedanism, they swept with 

irresistible force through the East and conquered nearly 
all x\sia Minor. The ruin of this country, in earher ages one 
of the most populous and flourishing regions of the world, dates 
from its occupation by the Seljuks. To resist their further 
advance the Roman emperor sought in 1095 a.d. the help of 
the Christians of Europe. His appeals for aid resulted in the 
First Crusade, with which a new chapter of medieval history 
began.- 

Thus, for more than five centuries after Justinian, the Roman 
Empire in the East was engaged in a long struggle with the 
foes — Persians, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks — which y^^Q^^ 
successively attacked its dominions. By its stub- empire in 
born resistance of the advance of the invaders 
the old empire protected the young states of Europe from attack, 
until they grew strong enough to meet and repulse the hordes 
of Asia. This service to civilization was not less important 

1 So named from one of their leaders. 2 See chapter xx. 



334 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



than that which had been performed by Greece and Rome in 
their contests with the Persians and the Carthaginians. 

117. The Empire and its Foes in Europe 

The troubled years after Justinian's death also witnessed 
the beginning of the Slavic ^ settlements in southeastern 
g^^^^ Europe. The Slavs belonged to the Indo-European 

race, but had not progressed in civilization as far 
as the Germans. Their cradle land seems to have been in 
western Russia, whence they slowly spread to the Baltic, the 
Elbe, and the Danube. We have already mentioned the cam- 
paigns which Charlemagne and Henry the Fowler waged against 
them.^ The emperors at Constantinople were less successful in 
resisting that branch of the Slavs which tried to occupy the 
Balkan peninsula. After crossing the Danube, the Slavs pressed 
on farther and farther, until they reached the southern extremity 
of ancient Greece. They avoided the cities, but formed peasant 
communities in the open country, where they readily mingled 
with the inhabitants. Their descendants have remained in 
the Balkan peninsula to this day. The inhabitants of modern 
Serbia ^ are Slavs, and even in the Greeks there is a considerable 
strain of Slavic blood. 

The Bulgarians, a people akin to the Huns and Avars, made 

their appearance south of the lower Danube in the seventh 

century. For more than three hundred years 
Bulgarians i i i • i ■, r ^ i 

these barbarians, brutal, nerce, and cruel, were a 

menace to the empire. At one time they threatened Constan- 
tinople and even killed a Roman emperor, whose skull was 
converted into a drinking cup to grace their feasts. The Bul- 
garians settled in the region which now bears their name and 
gradually adopted the speech and customs of the Slavs. Modern 
Bulgaria is essentially a Slavic state. 

1 The word slova means "speech" ; the Slavs are those who speak the same 
language. 

2 See pages 309, 315. 

3 A more accurate designation than Servia. Originally, all Slavic peoples 
called themselves Serbs. 



The Empire and its Foes in Europe 335 

The empire was attacked in southeastern Europe by still 

other barbarians, among whom were the Russians. This 

Slavic people, led by chieftains from Sweden, „ 

111 . 1 -i-x . . 1 Russians 

descended the Dnieper and Dniester rivers and, 

crossing the Black Sea, appeared before the walls of Con- 
stantinople. Aheady, in the tenth century, that city formed 
the goal of Russian ambitions. The invaders are said to have 
made four attempts to plunder its treasures. Though unsuc- 
cessful, they compelled the emperors from time to time to pay 
them tribute. 

Christianity reached the invaders of the Balkan peninsula 
from Constantinople. The Serbians, Bulgarians, and Russians 
were converted in the ninth and tenth centuries, -^oj-k of the 
With Christianity they received the use of letters empire in 
and some knowledge of Roman law and methods 
of government. Constantinople was to them, henceforth, such 
a center of reHgion and culture as Rome was to the Germans. 
By becoming the teacher of the vast Slavic peoples of the 
Balkan peninsula and European Russia, the empire performed 
another important service to civiHzation. 

118. Byzantine Civilization 

The Roman Empire in the East, though often menaced by 
barbarian foes, long continued to be the leading European power. 
Its highest degree of prosperity was reached be- strength 
tween the middle of the ninth and the middle of and wealth 
the eleventh century. The provinces in Asia empire 
Minor and the Balkan peninsula produced a vast annual 
revenue, much of which went for defense. It was necessary to 
maintain a large, well-discipHned army, great fleets and engines 
of war, and the extensive fortifications of Constantinople and 
the frontier cities. Confronted by so many dangers, the empire 
could hope to survive only by making itself a strong military 
state. 

The merchant ships of Constantinople, during the earher part 
of the Middle Ages, carried on most of the commerce of the 



33 6 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The products of Byzantine 
industry, including silks, embroideries, mosaics, enamels, and 
Commerce nietal work, were exchanged at that city for the 
and spices, drugs, and precious stones of the East, 

mdustry Byzantine wares also found their way into Italy 
and France and, by way of the Russian rivers, reached the 
heart of eastern Europe. Russia, in turn, furnished Con- 
stantinople with large quantities of honey, wax, fur, wool^ 
grain, and slaves. A traveler of the twelfth century well 
described the city as a metropolis "common to aU the worlds 
without distinction of country or religion." 

Many of the Roman emperors from Justinian onward were 
great builders. Byzantine architecture, seen especially in the 
Character of churches, became a leading form of art. Its most 
Byzantine striking feature is the dome, which replaces the 
^* fiat, wooden roof used in the basilican^ churches 

of Italy. The exterior of a Byzantine church is plain and unim- 
posing, but the interior is adorned on a magnificent scale. The 
eyes of the worshiper are dazzled by the walls faced with marble 
slabs of variegated colors, by the columns of polished marble, 
jasper, and porphyry, and by the brilliant mosaic pictures of 
gilded glass. The entire impression is one of richness and 
splendor. Byzantine artists, though mediocre painters and 
sculptors, excelled . in aU kinds of decorative work. Their 
carvings in wood, ivory, and metal, together with their em- 
broideries, enamels, and miniatures, enjoyed a high reputation 
throughout medieval Europe. 

Byzantine art, from the sixth century to the present time,, 
has exerted a wide influence. Sicily, southern Italy, Rome,. 
Influence of Ravenna, and Venice contain many examples of 
Byzantine Byzantine churches. ItaHan painting in the 
Middle Ages seems to have been derived directly 
from the mosaic pictures of the artists of Constantinople. Russia 
received not only its religion but also its art from Constantinople. 
The great Russian churches of Moscow and Petrograd follow 
Byzantine models. Even the Arabs, in spite of their hostiHty 

1 See page 284. 



Byzantine Civilization 337 

to Christianity, borrowed Byzantine artists and profited by 
their services. The Mohammedan mosques of Damascus, 
Cairo, and Cordova, both in methods of construction and 
m details of ornamentation, reproduce Byzantine styles. 

The hbraries and museums of Constantinople preserved 
classical learning. In the flourishing schools of that city the 
wisest men of the day taught philosophy, law, Literattire 
medicine, and science to thousands of students, and 
The professors figured among the important 
persons of the court: official documents mention the "prince 
of the rhetoricians" and the "consul of the philosophers." 
Many of the emperors showed a taste for scholarship; one of 
them was said to have been so devoted to study that he almost 
forgot to reign. When kings in western Europe were so 
ignorant that they could with difficulty scrawl their names, 
eastern emperors wrote books and composed poetry. It is 
true that Byzantine scholars were erudite rather than original. 
Impressed by the great treasures of knowledge about them, 
they found it difficult to strike out into new, unbeaten paths. 
Most students were content to make huge collections of 
extracts and notes from the books which antiquity had 
bequeathed to them. Even this task was useful, however, 
for their encyclopedias preserved much information which 
otherwise would have been lost. During the Middle Ages the 
East cherished the productions of classical learning, until the 
time came when the West was ready to receive them and to 
profit by them. 

119. Constantinople 

The heart of Byzantine civilization was Constantinople. 
The city Hes on a peninsula between the Sea of Marmora and 
the spacious harbor called the Golden Horn, position of 
Washed on three sides by the water and, like Constanti- 
Rome, enthroned upon seven hills, Constantinople 
occupies a site justly celebrated as the noblest in the world. It 
stands in Europe, looks on Asia, and commands the entrance 
to both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. As a sixteenth 



338 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



century writer pointed out, Constantinople "is a city which 
Nature herself has designed to be the mistress of the world." 




Vicinity of Constantinople 



The position of Constantinople made it difficult to attack 
but easy to defend. To surround the city an enemy would 
Constanti- have to be strong upon both land and sea. A 
nople as a hostile army, advancing through Asia Minor, 
natural citadel f^^j^^j j^-g further advance arrested by the long, 
winding channel which the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, 
and the Dardanelles combine to form. A hostile fleet, coming 
by way of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, faced grave 
difficulties in attempting to penetrate the narrow strait into 
which this waterway contracts at each extremity. On the 
landward side the line of defense was so short — about four 
miles in width — that it could be strongly fortified and held 
by a small force against large numbers. During the Middle 
Ages the rear of the city was protected by two huge walls, the 
remains of which are still visible. Constantinople, in fact, 
was all but impregnable. Though each new century brought a 
fresh horde of enemies, it resisted siege after siege and long 



Exterior 




Interior 

S.\NCTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE 



Built by Justinian and dedicated on Christmas Day, 538 a.d. The main building is 
roofed over by a great central dome, 107 feet in diameter and 179 feet in height. After the 
Ottoman Turks turned the church into a mosque, a minaret was erected at each of the four 
exterior angles. The outside of Sancta Sophia is somewhat disappointing, but the interior, 
with its walls and columns of polished marble, granite, and porphyry, is magnificent. The 
mosaic figures on the walls have been covered up, but not destroyed, by the Turks. 



Constantinople 



339 



continued to be the capital of what was left of the Roman 
Empire.^ 

Constantine had laid out his new city on an imposing scale 
and adorned it with the choicest treasures of art from Greece, 
Italy, and the Orient. Fourteen .churches, four- Monuments 
teen palaces, eight pubhc baths, and several of Con- 
triumphal arches are assigned to the founder of ^*^^*"^°p^® 
the city. His most 
stately building was 
the Hippodrome, an 
immense structure 
devoted to chariot 
races and all sorts 
of popular gather- 
ings. There new 
emperors, after their 
consecration in 
Sancta Sophia, were 
greeted by their sub- 
jects; there civic 
festivals were held; 
and there the last 
Roman triumphs 
were celebrated. 
Theodosius the The Three Existing IMoxumexts of the 
Great built the HippoDROiiE, Constantinople 

principal gate of These three monuments preserve for us the exact line of 

•11 wall, or spina, which divided the race course and 

V_.Onstantinopie, tne around which the charioteers drove their furious steeds. The 

" Q.Qj(^g-Q Qate " as obelisk was transported from Egypt by Constantine. Be- 
tween it and the crumbling tower beyond is a pillar of three 

it was called, by brazen serpents, originally set up at Delphi by the Greeks, 

which the emperors ^^^^^ battle of Platasa. On this trophy were engraved 

J . the names of the various states that sent soldiers to fight the 

made tneu" solemn Persians, 
entry into the city. 

But it was Justinian who, after Constantine, did most to adorn 




1 Of the eight sieges to which Constantinople was subjected in medieval times, 
only two succeeded. In 1204 a.d. it was captured by the Venetians and in 1453 
A.D., by the Ottoman Turks. See pages 477 and 492. 



340 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages 



the new capital by the Bosporus. He is said to have erected 
more than twenty-five churches in Constantinople and its 
suburbs. Of these, the most beautiful is the world-famed 
cathedral dedicated by Justinian to ''Holy Wisdom." On 
its completion the emperor declared that he had surpassed 



Valley 



iSweet Waters 



Wall of old{Gree!c)Byzantium(?) 
Wall of Constantine(y30) 
Double Wall of Theodosius IHi08-i50) 
Wall of Heraclius(626-6U) 
Wall of mediaeval Galata 
Wall of the New Seraglio 



Mosqtie'off 

Cosmidi. 
(Ey(!)ul 

Palace ofxBlachcrrjae 
\ Palace^of the\ 
\ Hebdomon * 
( Tekf our QertiVf-Ke 
Gate ofjJPortn 
CharisiusS riian; 

Qun: 
/Cliurch of th 




^;25£^5^heragan 
.... Palace 
eshicktasn 
(Diplokionion) 



R A , 

Tophane ^ T 


t Tower 
SYCAE) 



Gate ofiSt.(Mpsque of Mohammed 11)°^ 
Romans K j^:'^'^:-i;SKeik-ul-lSRcmj^ 
(Cann n Oa.^ tMosc^^W^^l^- 

I / ''cr^L^,^, 4 {^dcjopoHs of Greek 

1. i / r'-'^^-;^Hippodrome?,y2 ^Bucoleon Palace 

^ CA4m£idan):/In}perial 
X.i'a^.Li^Palace 




roM;cV\(CHRYSOPOLI£ 
i'i) of Leandev) 



SEA OF MAEMOEA 

Gof^en Castle of the Seven Towers 
GajQ /(Yedi KouLeli) 



CONSTANTINOPLE 

Scale 1:125000 
1/2 1 ' ^ Vz Mile? 




^ KADIKEUI 

(CHALCEDONY 



Solomon's Temple. Though nearly fourteen hundred years 
old and now defaced by vandal hands, it remains perhaps the 
supreme achievement of Christian architecture. 

Excepting Athens and Rome, no other European city can 
lay claim to so long and so important a history as Constantinople. 
Historic '^^^ came after theirs was done. Throughout 

significance the Middle Ages Constantinople remained the 

of Con- most important city in Europe. When London, 
stantinople . i ir. ^^ 

Pans, and Vienna were small and mean towns, 

Constantinople was a large and flourishing metropolis. The 

renown of the city penetrated even into barbarian lands. The 



Constantinople 341 

Scandinavians called it Micklegarth, the ''Great City"; the 
Russians knew of it as Tsarigrad, the "City of the Caesars." 
But its own people best described it as the ''City guarded 
by God." Here, for more than eleven centuries, was the 
capital of the Roman Empire and the center of Eastern 
Christendom. 

Studies 

I. Compare the area of the Roman Empire in the East in 395 a.d. with its 
area in 800 a.d. (maps between pages 222-223 and facing page 306). 2. Compare 
the respective areas in 800 a.d. of the Roman Empire in the East and Charlemagne's 
empire. 3. On the map, page 338, locate Adrianople, Gallipoli, Nicsea, the Bos- 
porus, Sea of Marmora, and Dardanelles. 4. Who were Belisarius Chosroes II, 
and Heraclius? 5. In your opinion which of the two rival imperial lines after 
800 A.D. had the better title to represent ancient Rome? 6. Why has Justinian 
been called the "lawgiver of civilization"? 7. Why was it necessary to codify 
Roman law? Is the English Common law codified? 8. Compare the work of 
Alexandrian and Byzantine scholars in preserving learning. 9. "The Byzantines 
were the teachers of the Slavs, as the Romans were of the Germans." Comment 
on this statement. 10. The Byzantine Empire was once called "a gigantic mass 
of mould, a thousand years old." Does this seem a fair description? 11. "The 
history of medieval civilization is, in large measure, the history of the Roman 
Empire in the East." Comment on this statement. 12. Show that Constanti- 
nople formed "a natural citadel." 13, On the map, page 340, trace the successive 
walls of Constantinople. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH IN THE EAST AND IN THE 
WEST TO 1054 A.D.i 

120. Development of the Christian Church 

A preceding chapter has traced the early history of Chris- 
tianity. We there saw how the new rehgion appeared in the 
The Catholic Orient, how it spread rapidly over the Roman 
Church Empire, how it engaged with the imperial govern- 

ment in the long conflict called the Persecutions, how the 
emperor Constantine, after his conversion, placed it on an 
equality with paganism, and how at the end of the fourth cen- 
tury the emperor Theodosius made it the state religion. By 
this time the Church had become a great and powerful organiza- 
tion, with fixed laws, with a graded system of officers, and with 
councils attended by clergy from all parts of the Roman world. 
To this organization the word Catholic, that is, "universal," 
came to be applied. Membership in the Catholic Church, 
secured only by baptism, was believed to be essential to salva- 
tion. As St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, had said, ''He can 
no longer have God for his Father who has not the Church for 
his Mother." 

The first three centuries of Christianity witnessed the devel- 
opment of the episcopal system in the Church. Each pro- 
The vincial city had its bishop, assisted by priests 

episcopate ^^^^^ deacons. An archbishop (sometimes caUed a 
metropolitan) presided over the bishops of each province, and 
a patriarch had jurisdiction, in turn, over metropolitans. This 
graded arrangement of ecclesiastical officers, from the lowest to 
the highest, helped to make the Church centralized and strong. 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter iii, "The Benedic- 
tine Rule"; chapter iv, "The ReestabUshment of Christianity in Britain"; chapter 
V, "St. Boniface, Apostle to the Germans." 

342 



Development of the Christian Church 343 

It appears to have been modeled, almost unconsciously, on the 
government of the Roman Empire.^ 

The development of the patriarchate calls for special notice. 
At the time of the Council of Nicaea^ there were three patri- 
archs, namely, the bishops of Rome, Antioch, and The 
Alexandria. These cities ranked among the most patriarchs 
important in the Roman world. It was only natural, therefore, 
that the churches established in them should be singled out for 
preeminence. Some years after the removal of the capital to 
Constantinople, the bishop of that imperial city was recognized 
as a patriarch at a general council of the Church. In the fifth 
century the bishop of Jerusalem received the same dignity. 
Henceforth there were five patriarchs — four in the East but 
only one in the West. 

The Christian Church v/as a very democratic organization. 
Patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons were 
drawn from all ranks of life. No special training clergy and 
at first was considered necessary to fit them for 
their duties, though the more celebrated ministers were often 
highly educated. To eke out their salaries the clergy sometimes 
carried on business as farmers and shopkeepers. Where, how- 
ever, a church had sufficient funds to support its bishop, his 
engagement in secular affairs was discouraged and finally 
prohibited. In the fourth century, as earher, priests and bishops 
were generally married men. The sentiment in favor of celibacy 
for the clergy became very pronounced during the early Middle 
Ages, especially in the West, and led at length to the general 
abandonment of priestly marriage in those parts of Europe 
where papal influence prevailed. Distinctive garments for 
clergymen did not begin to come into use until the fifth century, 
when some of them began to don clothing of a more sober hue 

1 The correspondence may be indicated as follows: 

The Roman Empire The Christian Church 

City — Mimicipal officials. Bishop. 

Province — Governor. Archbishop, or Metropolitan. 

Diocese — Vicar. Patriarch. 

Prefecture — Prefect. (No corresponding division.) 
2 See page 235. 



344 The Christian Church in the East and West 



than was fashionable at the time. Clerical vestments were 

developed from two pieces of ancient Roman dress — the tunic 

and the toga.^ Thus the clergy were gradually separated from 

the people, or laity, by differences in dress, by their celibate 

lives, and by their abstention from worldly occupations. 

While the Church was perfecting her organization, she was 

also elaborating her doctrines. Theologians engaged in many 

„ . controversies upon such subjects as the connection 

Heresies 

of Christ with God and the nature of the Trinity. 
In order to obtain an authoritative expression of Christian 
opinion, councils of the higher clergy were held, at which the 
opposing views were debated and a decision was reached. The 
Council of Nicsea, which condemned Arianism, formed the first, 
and one of the most important, of these general gatherings of 
the Church. After the Church had once expressed itself on 
any matter of Christian belief, it was regarded as unlawful to 
maintain a contrary opinion. Those who did so were called 
heretics, and their teachings, heresies. The emperor Theodosius, 
whose severe laws finally shattered the ancient paganism,^ de- 
voted even more attention to stamping out heresies among his 
Christian subjects. He prohibited meetings of heretics, burned 
their books, and threatened them with death if they persisted 
in their peculiar doctrines. During his reign a Spanish bishop 
and six of his partisans were executed for holding unorthodox 
beliefs. This was the beginning of the persecutions for heresy. 

As soon as Christianity had triumphed in the Roman Empire, 
thus becoming the religion of the rich and powerful as well as 

_ . the religion of the poor and lowly, more attention 

Worship , , , , . 

was devoted to the conduct of worship. Magmf- 

icent church buildings were often erected. Their architects 

seem to have followed as models the basihcas, or public halls, 

which formed so familiar a sight in Roman cities.^ Church 

interiors were adorned with paintings, mosaic pictures, images 

of saints and martyrs, and the figure of the cross. Lighted 

candles on the altars and the burning of fragrant incense lent 

an additional impressiveness to worship. Beautiful prayers 

1 See page 258. 2 See page 236. s See page 284. 



Development of the Christian Church 345 




Sunday 



and hymns were composed. Some of the early Christian hymns, 
such as the Gloria in Excelsis and the Te Deum Laudamus, are 
still sung in our churches. Organs did not come into use until 
the seventh century, and 
then only in the West, 
but church bells, summon- 
ing the worshiper to divine 
service, early became 
attached to Christian edi- 
fices. 

The Christians from the 
start appear to have ob- 
served "the first day of 
the week"^ in memory 
of Christ's resurrection. 
They attended 
public worship 
on the Lord's Day, but 
otherwise did not rigidly 
abstain from worldly 

business and amusements. The Jewish element in some 
churches, and especially in the East, was strong enough to 
secure an additional observance of Saturday as a weekly festival. 
Saturday long continued to be marked by religious assembhes 
and feasting, though not by any compulsory cessation of the 
ordinary occupations. During the fourth century Sunday, as 
the Lord's Day was now generally called, came more and more 
to be kept as a day of obligatory rest. Constantine's Sunday 
law 2 formed the first of a long series of imperial edicts im- 
posing the observance of that day as a legal duty. In this 
manner Sunday, hke the Jewish Sabbath on the seventh 
day of the week, was dedicated wholly to the exercises of 
religion. 

The great yearly festivals of the Church gradually took shape 
during the early Christian centuries. The most important 

1 John, XX, I, 19; compare i Corinthians, xvi, 2. 

2 See page 235 and note i. 



Religious Music 

From a window of the cathedral of Bourges, 
a city in central France. Shows a pipe organ 
and chimes. 



346 The Christian Church in the East and West 

anniversary to be observed was Easter, in memory of the resur- 
Festivals section of Christ. A period of fasting (Lent), 
which finally lasted forty days, preceded the 
festival. Whitsunday, or Pentecost, was celebrated on the 
fiftieth day after Easter.^ Two other festivals of later adoption 
were Christmas, the celebration of which was finally assigned 
to the 25th of December, 2 and Epiphany (January 6), com- 
memorating the baptism of Christ. In course of time many 
other feasts and fasts, together with numerous saints' days, 
were added to the calendar of the " Christian Year." 



121. Eastern Christianity 

By the time of Constantine, Christianity had spread widely 
throughout the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Asia Minor 
Expansion of then largely Christian. Thrace, Macedonia, 

Christianity Epirus, and Greece were all ecclesiastical prov- 
in the East [Yices with their own metropolitans. Many 
Christians were found in Syria and Egypt. Churches also ex- 
isted in Mesopotamia and Arabia, and even beyond the bound- 
aries of the empire in Armenia and Persia. Between the time 
of Constantine and that of Justinian, Christianity continued 
to expand in the East, until the gospel had been carried to 
such distant regions as Abyssinia and India. 

Most of the Christian communities in the Orient owed alle- 
giance to the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, 
Union of Alexandria. The Roman emperor, however, 

Church and was the supreme religious authority in the East. 
State ^^1^ much his duty to maintain the doc- 

trines and organization of Christianity as to preserve the im- 
perial dominions against foreign foes. Since he presided over 
the Church, there could be no real independence for its officers. 
Bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs were in every respect 
subordinate to his will. This union of Church and State 
formed one of the most characteristic features of Christianity 
in the East. 



1 See Acts, ii, 1-4. 



2 See page 229, note i. 



Eastern Christianity 



347 




Eastern Christians, far more than those in the West, devoted 
themselves to theological speculations. Constantinople and 
the great HeUenistic Theological 
cities of Antioch and disputes; 
Alexandria contained 
many learned scholars who had pro- 
longed and heated arguments over 
subtle questions of behef. After 
the Arian controversy had been 
settled in the fourth century, other 
disputes concerning the true nature 
of Christ broke out. These gave 
rise to many heresies. 

The heresy known as Nestorian- 
ism, from Nestorius, a patriarch of 
Constantinople, spread 
widely in the East. 
Nestorian missionaries 
trated to 
Mongolia. 



Nestorianism 



even pene- 
India, China, and 
The churches which 



i 












t 








The Nestorian Monument 



they established were numerous % 
and influential during the Middle - ' 
Ages, but since then most of them 
have been destroyed by the Moham- 
medans. Members of this sect are 
still to be found, however, in east- 
ern lands. ^ 

After the formation of the Nes- 
torian and other heretical sects, the 
orthodox faith was preserved in the 
East only by the Greeks 
of Asia Minor and 
Europe. The Greek Church, which 
calls itself the "Holy Orthodox 
Church," for a time remained in unity with the Roman Church 

1 In modem India (INIalabar) there are no less than 400,000 Syrian Christians 
who owe their religion to Nestorian missionaries. 



Orthodoxy 



Evidence of Nestorian missions in 
China is afforded by the famous 
monument at Chang'an, province of 
Shensi. The stone, which was set 
up in 781 A.D., commemorates by an 
inscription in Chinese characters and 
the figure of a cross the introduction 
of Christianity into northwestern 
China. A replica of the Nestorian 
monument was taken to the United 
States in 1908 a.d. and was de- 
posited in the Metropolitan Museum 
of Art, New York. 



34^ The Christian Church in the East and West 



The Papacy 



in the West. The final separation of these two churches 
occurred in the eleventh century.^ 

122. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy 

Christianity in the West presented two sharp contrasts to 
eastern Christianity. In the first place, the great heresies 
which divided the East scarcely affected the West. 
In the second place, no union of Church and State 
existed among western Christians. Instead of acknowledging 

the religious supremacy of the 
emperor at Constantinople, they 
yielded obedience to the bishop of 
Rome, the head of the Roman 
Church. He is known to us as 
the pope, and his office is called 
the Papacy. We shall now in- 
quire how the popes secured their 
unchallenged authority over west- 
ern Christendom. 

A church in Rome must have 
been established at an early date, 
for it was to Roman 




Papal Arms 



According to the well-known pas- 
sage in Matthew (xvi, 19), Christ 
gave to St. Peter the "keys of the 
kingdom of heaven," with the power 
"to bind and to loose." These keys 
are always represented in the papal 
arms, together with the tiara or head- 
dress, worn by the popes on certain 
occasions. 



Rome an 

apostolic Christians that St. 

church 



Paul addressed one of 
the Epistles now preserved in the 
New Testament. St. Paul visited 
Rome, as we know from the Acts 
of the Apostles, and there he is 
said to have suffered martyrdom. 
Christian tradition, very ancient and very generally received, 
declares that St. Peter also labored in Rome, where he met a 
martyr's death, perhaps during the reign of the emperor 
Nero. To the early Christians, therefore, the Roman Church 
must have seemed in the highest degree sacred, for it had 
been founded by the two greatest apostles and had been 
nourished by their blood. 

1 See page 362. 



Western Christianity: Rise of Papacy 349 



Another circumstance helped to give the Roman Church a 
superior position in the West. It was a vigorous missionary 
church. Rome, the largest and most flourishing ^^^^ ^ 
city in the empire and the seat of the imperial "Mother- 
government, naturally became the center from ^^"^^^ 
which Christianity spread over the western provinces. Many of 
the early Christian communities planted in Spain, Gaul, 
and Africa owed their start to the missionary zeal of the 
Roman Church. To Rome, as the great "Mother-church," 
her daughters in western Europe would turn henceforth with 
reverence and affection; they would readily acknowledge her 
leading place among the churches; and they would seek her 
advice on disputed points of Christian belief or worship. 

The independence of the Roman Church also furthered its 
development. The bishop of Rome was the sole patriarch 
in the West, while in the East there were two, and jj^^ Roman 
later four patriarchs, each exercising authority Church in- 
in religious matters. Furthermore, the removal 
of the capital from Rome to Constantinople helped to free the 
Roman bishop from the close oversight of the imperial govern- 
ment. He was able, henceforth, to promote the interests of 
the church under his control without much interference on the 
part of the eastern emperor. 

Finally, it must be noted how much the development of the 
Roman Church was aided by its attitude on disputed questions 
of behef. While eastern Christendom was torn ^j^^ Roman 
by theological controversies, the Church of Rome Church 
stood firmly by the Nicene Creed. ^ After the 
Arian, Nestorian, and other heresies were finally condemned, 
orthodox Christians felt indebted to the Roman Church for 
its unwavering championship 'of "the faith once delivered to 
the saints." They were all the more ready, therefore, to 
defer to that church in matters of doctrine and to accept without 
question its spiritual authority. 

The claim of the Roman bishops to supremacy over the 
Christian world had a double basis. Certain passages in the 

1 See page 236. 



350 The Christian Church in the East and West 



New Testament, where St. Peter is represented as the rock 
on which the Church is bulk, the pastor of the sheep and 
lambs of the Lord, and the doorkeeper of the kingdom of 
The Petrine heaven, appear to indicate that he was regarded 
supremacy Christ as the chief of the Aposdes. Further- 

more, a well-established tradition made St. Peter the founder 
of the Roman Church and its first bishop. It was then 
argued that he passed to his successors, the popes, all his 
rights and dignity. As St. Peter was the first among the 
Apostles, so the popes were to be the first among bishops. 
Such was the doctrine of the Petrine supremacy, expressed as 
far back as the second century, strongly asserted by many 
popes during the Middle Ages, and maintained to-day by the 
Roman Church. 

123. Growth of the Papacy 

Up to the middle of the fifth century about forty-five bishops 
had occupied St. Peter's chair at Rome. The most eminent 
Pontificate these was Leo the Great. When he became 

of Leo I, bishop, the Germans were overrunning the western 
440-461 A.D. pj.Qyjj-^(^gg Qf ii^Q empire. The invaders professed 
the Arian faith, as we have seen, and often persecuted the 
orthodox Christians among whom they settled. At such a 
time, when the imperial power was growing weaker, faithful 
CathoHcs in the West naturally turned for support to the bishop 
of Rome. Leo became their champion against the barbarians. 
Tradition declares that he succeeded in diverting Attila from 
an attack on Rome, and when the Vandals sacked the city 
Leo also intervened to prevent its destruction.^ 

After Leo, no important name occurs in the list of popes 
until we come to Gregory the Great. Gregory, as the son of 
Pontificate of ^ ^^^^ distinguished Roman senator, enjoyed 
Gregory I, a good education in all the learning of the time. 
590-604 A.D. -^^ entered public hfe and at an early age became 
prefect of Rome. But now, almost at the outset of his 
career, Gregory laid aside earthly ambition. He gave up his 

1 See pages 248-249. 



Growth of the Papacy 



351 



honorable position and spent the fortune, inherited from his 
father, in the foundation of monasteries and the relief of 
the poor. He himself became a monk, turned his palace 
at Rome into a monastery, and almost ruined his health 
by too great devotion to fasts and midnight vigils. Gregory's 
conspicuous talents, however, soon called him from retirement 
and led to his election as pope. 

The work of Gregory lay principally in two directions. As a 
statesman he did much to make the popes virtual sovereigns 
at Rome and in Italy. At this time the Italian Temporal 
peninsula, overrun by the Lombards and neglected power of 
by the eastern emperor, was in a deplorable con- ^^^^^^^ 
dition. The bishop of Rome seemed to be the only man who 
could protect the people and maintain order. Gregory had 
very great success in this task. He appointed governors of 
cities, issued orders to generals, drilled the Romans for military 
defense, and sent ambassadors to treat with the king of the 
Lombards. It was largely owing to Gregory's efforts that these 
barbarians were prevented from conquering central Italy. 

Gregory was no less eminent as a churchman. His writings 
and his personal influence greatly furthered the advancement 
of the Roman Church in the West. We find him Gregory's 
sternly repressing heresies wherever they arose, spiritual 
aiding the conversion of Arian Visigoths in Spain 
and Arian Lombards in Italy, and sending out monks as 
missionaries to distant Britain. ^ He well deserved by these 
labors the title "Servant of the servants of God,"^ which he 
assumed, and which the popes after him have retained. The 
admiration felt for his character and abilities raised him, in 
later ages, to the rank of a saint. 

When Gregory the Great closed his remarkable career, the 
Papacy had reached a commanding place in western Christen- 
dom. To their spiritual authority the popes had Position of 
now begun to add some measure of temporal Papacy 
power as rulers at Rome and in Italy. During the eighth 
century, as we have already learned,^ the alliance of the popes 

1 See page 322. 2 Servus servorum Dei. 3 See pages 305-307. 



352 The Christian Church in the East and West 



and the Franks helped further to establish the Papacy as an 
ecclesiastical monarchy, ruhng over both the souls and bodies 
of men. Henceforth it was to go forward from strength to 
strength. 

124. Monasticism 

The Papacy during the Middle Ages found its strongest 
supporters among the monks. By the time of Gregory the Great 
/pjjg monasticism ^ was weU established in the Christian 

monastic Church. Its origin must be sought in the need, 
spirit often felt by spiritually-minded men, of withdraw- 

ing from the world — from its temptations and its transitory 
pleasures — to a life of solitude, prayer, and religious contem- 
plation. Joined to this feeling has been the conviction that the 
soul may be purified by subduing the desires and passions of 
the body. Men, influenced by the monastic spirit, sought a 
closer approach to God. 

The monastic spirit in Christianity owed much to the example 
of its founder, who was himself unmarried, poor, and without a 
Early place "where to lay his head." Some of Christ's 

Christian teachings, taken literally, also helped to exalt the 
monasticism ^q^^]^ Qf monastic life. At a very early period 
there were Christian men and women who abstained from 
marriage, flesh meat, and the use of wine, and gave themselves 
up to prayer, religious exercises, and works of charity. This 
they did in their homes, without abandoning their famihes and 
human society. 

Another monastic movement began about the middle of the 

third century, when many Christians in Egypt withdrew into 

, . the desert to live as hermits. St. Anthony, who 
The hermits , , , , n ^^ ■ - ^ • ^ 

has been called the first Christian hermit, passed 

twenty years in a deserted fort on the east bank of the Nile. 
During all this time he never saw a human face. Some of the 
hermits, believing that pain and suffering had a spiritual value, 
went to extremes of self-mortification. They dwelt in wells, 
tombs, and on the summits of pillars, deprived themselves of 

1 From a Greek word which means "living alone." 



Monasticism 



353 



necessary food and sleep, wore no clothing, and neglected to 
bathe or to care for the body in any way. Other hermits, who 
did not practice such austerities, spent all day or all night in 
prayer. The examples of these recluses found many imitators 
in Syria and other eastern lands. ^ 

A life shut off from all contact with one's fellows is difficult 
and beyond the strength of ordinary men. The mere human 
need for social intercourse gradually brought the Rule of 
hermits together, at first in small groups and then ^^^^ 
in larger communities, or monasteries. The next step was to 




St. Daniel the Stylite on his Column 

From a Byzantine miniature in the Vatican. 



give the scattered monasteries a common organization and 
government. Those in the East gradually adopted the regu- 
lations which St. Basil, a leading churchman of the fourth cen- 
tury, drew up for the guidance of the monks under his direction. 
St. Basil's Rule, as it is called, has remained to the present 
time the basis of monasticism in the Greek Church. 
The monastic system, which early gained an entrance into 

1 See Tennyson's poem, St. Simeon Stylites. 



354 The Christian Church in the East and West 



St. Benedict 



western Christendom, looked to St. Benedict as its organizer. 

While yet a young man, St. Benedict had sought to 
escape from the vice about him by retiring to a cave 
in the Sabine hills near Rome. Here he lived for three years 
as a hermit, shutting himself off from all human intercourse, 

wearing a hair 
shirt, and rolling 
in beds of thistles 
to subdue "the 
flesh." St. Bene- 
dict's experience 
of the hermit's 
life convinced 
him that there 
was a surer and 
better road to 
religious peace of 
mind. His fame as 
a holy man had 
attracted to him 
many disciples, 
and these he now 
began to group in 
monastic communities under his own supervision. St. Bene- 
dict's most important monastery was at Monte Cassino, midway 
between Rome and Naples. It became the capital of monasti- 
cism in the West. 

To control the monks of Monte Cassino St. Benedict framed 
a Rule, or constitution, which was modeled in some respects 
Rule of St. i^pon the earlier Rule of St. Basil. The monks 

Benedict, formed a sort of corporation, presided over by an 
529 (?) A.D. ^^^^^^1 ^^^^ ^^-^^ ^^^^ j.^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ 

every candidate for admission took the vow of obedience. 
Any man, rich or poor, noble or peasant, might enter the mon- 
astery, after a year's probation; having once joined, however, 




-Buttery I 

» t • 



Plan of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire 



1 From a Syrian word, abba, meaning "father." Hence a monastery 



was often 



called an abbey. 



Life and Work of the Monks 



355 



he must remain a monk for the rest of his days. The monks 
were to live under strict disciphne. They could not own any 
property; they could not go beyond the monastery walls with- 
out the abbot's consent; they could not even receive letters 
from home; and they were sent to bed early. A violation 
of the regulations brought punishment in the shape of private 
admonitions, exclusion from common prayer, and, in extreme 
cases, expulsion. 

The Rule of St. Benedict came to have the same wide influ- 
ence in the West which that of St. Basil exerted in the East. 
Gregory the Great established it in many places gpread of 
in Italy, Sicily, and England. During Charle- the Bene- 
magne's reign it was made the only form of monas- ^^^^^^^ 
ticism throughout his dominions. By the tenth century the 
Rule prevailed everywhere in western Europe.^ 

125. Life and Work of the Monks 

St. Benedict sought to draw a sharp line between the monastic 
life and that of the outside world. Hence he required that, 
as far as possible, each monastery should form an a monastic 
independent, self-supporting community whose community 
members had no need of going beyond its limits for anything. 
In course of time, as a monastery increased in wealth and number 
of inmates, it might come to form an enormous establishment, 
covering many acres and presenting within its massive walls 
the appearance of a fortified town. 

The principal buildings of a Benedictine monastery of the 
larger sort were grouped around an inner court, called a cloister. 
These included a church, a refectory, or dining ^j^^ monas- 
room, with the kitchen and buttery near it, a tery build- 
dormitory, where the monks slept, and a chapter ^^^^ 
house, where they transacted business. There was also a 
Hbrary, a school, a hospital, and a guest house for the reception 
of strangers, besides barns, bakeries, laundries, workshops, 

1 Other monastic orders arose during the later Middle Ages (see pages 449, 452), 
but the Benedictines still exist, chiefly in Austria and Italy. Their order was intro- 
duced into the United States during the nineteenth century. 



356 The Christian Church in the East and West 



and storerooms for provisions. Beyond these buildings lay 
vegetable gardens, orchards, grain fields, and often a mill, if 
the monastery was built on a stream. The high wall and ditch, 
usually surrounding a monastery, shut it off from outsiders 
and in time of danger protected it against attack. 




Abbey of Saint-Germain des Pres, Paris 

This celebrated monastery was founded in the sixth century. Of the orig- 
inal buildings only the abbey church remains. The illustration shows the 
monastery as it was in 1361 A.D., with walls, towers, drawbridge, and moat. 
Adjoining the church were the cloister, the refectory, and the dormitory. 

St. Benedict defined a monastery as "a. school for the service 
of the Lord." The monks under his Rule occupied themselves 
Monastic with a regular round of worship, reading, and 
occupations manual labor. Each day was divided into seven 
sacred offices, beginning and ending with services in the mon- 
astery church. The first service came usually about two 
o'clock in the morning; the last, just as evening set in, before 



Life and Work of the Monks 



357 



the monks retired to rest. In addition to their attendance at 
church, the monks spent several hours in reading from the 
Bible, private prayer, and meditation. For most of the day, 
however, they worked 
hard with their hands, 
doing the necessary wash- 
ing and cooking for the 
monastery, raising the 
necessary supplies of 
vegetables and grain, and 
performing all the other 
tasks required to main- 
tain a large establish- 
ment. This emphasis on 
labor, as a rehgious duty, 
was a characteristic feat- 
ure of western monasti- 
cism. ''To labor is to 
pray" became a favorite 
motto of the Benedictines.^ 

It is clear that life in 
a Benedictine monastery appealed to many different kinds 
of people in the Middle Ages. Those of a spiritual turn 
of mind found in the monastic hfe the op- Attractive- 
portunity of giving themselves wholly to God. ness of the 
Studious and thoughtful persons, with no dispo- 
sition for an active career in the world, naturally turned 
to the monastery as a secure retreat. The friendless and 
the disgraced often took refuge within its walls. Many a 
troubled soul, to whom the trials of this world seemed unen- 
durable, sought to escape from them by seeking the peaceful 
shelter of the cloister. 

The civilizing influence of the Benedictine monks during the 
early Middle Ages can scarcely be over-emphasized. A monas- 
tery was often at once a model farm, an inn, a hospital, a 
school, and a hbrary. By the careful cultivation of their lands 

1 Laborare est orare. 




A MoiSiK Copyist 

From a manuscript in the British Museum 
London. 



358 The Christian Church in the East and West 



the monks set an example of good farming wherever they 
The monks settled. They entertained pilgrims and travelers, 
as civilizers ^ period when western Europe was almost 
destitute of inns. They performed many works of charity, 
feeding the hungry, healing the sick who were brought to their 
doors, and distributing their medicines freely to those who 
needed them. In their schools they trained both boys who 
wished to become priests and those who intended to lead active 
lives in the world. The monks, too, were the only scholars 
of the age. By copying the manuscripts of classical authors, 
they preserved valuable books that would otherwise have been 
lost. By keeping records of the most striking events of their 
time, they acted as chroniclers of medieval history. To all 
these services must be added the work of the monks as mis- 
sionaries to the heathen peoples of Europe. 

126. Spread of Christianity over Europe 

Almost all Europe had been won to Christianity by the end 

of the eleventh century. In the direction of this great mis- 

_ sionary campaign the Roman Church took the 

The Roman ^ i , 

Church and leadmg part.^ The ofi&cers of her armies were 
bSia^" zealous popes, bishops, and abbots; her private 
soldiers were equally zealous monks, priests, and 
laymen. Pagan Rome had never succeeded in making a com- 
plete and permanent conquest of the barbarians. Christian 
Rome, however, was able to bring them all under her spiritual 
sway. 

Christianity first reached the Germanic invaders in its Arian^ 
form. Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, and Lom- 
Reconversion ^ards were all Arians. The Roman Church 
of the Arian regarded them as heretics and labored with success 
Germans reconvert them. This work was at last com- 

pleted when the Lombards, in the seventh century, accepted the 
Catholic faith. 

The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, whose kingdoms were to 

1 For the missionary work of Celtic Christians see page 323 and note i. 

2 See page 236. 



Spread of Christianity over Europe 359 



develop into the chief states of medieval Europe, adopted 

from the outset the Cathohc form of Christianity, 

The conversion of the Franks provided the Roman Anglo-Saxons 

Church with its strongest and most faithful converted to 

adherents among the Germanic tribes.^ The con- cathoUcism 

version of Anglo-Saxon Britain by Augustine and 

his monks, followed later by the spread of Roman Catholicism 

in Ireland and Scotland, firmly united the British Isles to the 

Papacy .2 Thus Rome during the Middle Ages came to be 

the one center of church life for the peoples of western 

Europe. 

An Anglo-Saxon monk, St. Boniface, did more than any 

other missionary to carry Christianity to the remote tribes 

of Germany. Like Augustine in England, St. „ „ 

, , 1 1 -, . St. Boniface 

Boniface was sent by the pope, who created him and the con- 

a missionary bishop and ordered him to "carry version of 

the Germans 

the word of God to unbehevers." St. Boniface 
also enjoyed the support of the Frankish rulers, Charles Martel 
and Pepin the Short. Thanks to their assistance this intrepid 
monk was able to penetrate into the heart of Germany. Here 
he labored for nearly forty years, preaching, baptizing, and 
founding numerous churches, monasteries, and schools. His 
boldness in attacking heathenism is illustrated by the story 
of how he cut down with his own hands a. certain oak tree, much 
reverenced by the natives of Hesse as sacred to the god Woden, 
and out of its wood built a chapel dedicated to St. Peter. 
St. Boniface crowned a lifetime of missionary labor with a 
martyr's death, probably in 754 a.d. His work was continued 
by Charlemagne, who forced the Saxons to accept Christianity 
at' the point of the sword.^ All Germany at length became 
a Christian land, devoted to the Papacy. 

Roman Cathohcism not only spread to Celtic and Germanic 
peoples, but it also gained a foothold among the Slavs. Both 
Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great attempted conversion 
to Christianize the Slavic tribes between the Elbe °^ ^^^^^ 
and the Vistula, by locating bishoprics in their territory. The 

1 See pages 304-305. ^ See pages 322-325. 3 See page 308. 



360 The Christian Church in the East and West 



work of conversion encountered many setbacks and did not 
reach completion until the middle of the twelfth century. 
The most eminent missionaries to the Slavs were Cyril and 
Methodius. These brother-monks were sent from Constan- 
tinople in 863 A.D. to convert the Moravians, who formed 
a kingdom on the eastern boundary of Germany. Seeing 
their great success as missionaries, the pope invited them to 
Rome and secured their consent to an arrangement which 
brought the Moravian Christians under the control of the 
Papacy.^ From Moravia Christianity penetrated into Bohemia 
and Poland. These countries still remain strongholds of the 
Roman Church. The Serbians and Russians, as we have 
learned,^ received Christianity by way of Constantinople and 
so became adherents of the Greek Church. 

Roman Catholicism gradually spread to most of the remaining 
peoples of Europe. The conversion of the Norwegians and 

, ^ Swedes was well advanced by the middle of the 
Final exten- 

sion of eleventh century. The Magyars, or Hungarians, 

5°?^!^ . accepted Christianity at about the same date. 
Catholicism ^ . . . , , 

The kmg of Hungary was such a devout 

Catholic that in the year 1000 a.d. the pope sent to him a 
golden crown and saluted him as ''His Apostolic Majesty." 
The last parts of heathen Europe to receive the message of 
the gospel were the districts south and east of the Baltic, 
occupied by the Prussians, Lithuanians, and Finns. Their con- 
version took place between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. 

127. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity 

Before the Christian conquest of Europe was finished, Chris- 
tianity had divided into two great communions — the Greek 
Church and the Roman Church. Their separation was a long, 
slow process, arising from the deep-seated differences between 
East and West. Though Rome had carried her conquering 

1 Cyril and Methodius were canonized by Pope Leo XIII in 1881 a.d. A millen- 
ial celebration of the two apostles was held in 1863 a.d. by the people of Moravia 
and Bohemia. 

2 See page 335. The Bulgarians also got their Christianity from Constantinople 
in the ninth century. 



Eastern and Western Christianity 361 



arms throughout the Mediterranean basin, all the region east 
of the Adriatic was imperfectly Romanized.^ It Divergence 
remained Greek in language and culture, and of East and 
tended, as time went on, to grow more and more 
unlike the West, which was truly Roman. The founding of 
Constantinople and the transference of the capital from the 
banks of the Tiber to the shores of the Bosporus still further 
widened the breach between the two halves of the Roman 
world. After the Germans established their kingdoms in Italy, 
Spain, Gaul, and Britain, western Europe was practically 
independent of the rulers at Constantinople. The coronation 
of Charlemagne in 800 a.d. marked the final severance of East 
and West. 

The division of the Roman Empire led naturally to a grouping 

of the Christian Church about Rome and Constantinople, the 

two chief centers of government. The popes, it ^, „ 

has been seen, had always enjoyed spiritual leader- L'd th?^^" 

ship in the West. In temporal matters they ac- eastern 

. emperors 
knowledged the authority of the eastern emperors, 

until the failure of the latter to protect Rome and Italy from 
the barbarians showed clearly that the popes must rely on their 
own efforts to defend Christian civilization. We have already 
learned how well such men as Leo the Great and Gregory the 
Great performed this task. Then in the eighth century came 
the alliance with the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, which 
gave the Papacy a powerful and generous protector beyond the 
Alps. Finally, by crowning Charlemagne, the pope definitely 
broke with the emperor at Constantinople and transferred 
his allegiance to the newly created western emperor. 

The patriarch of Constantinople, as bishop of the capital 
city, enjoyed an excellent position from which to assert his 
preeminence over the bishops of the other churches ^^.^^ 
in the East. Justinian in 550 a.d. conferred on patriarchate 
him the privilege of receiving appeals from the gj^^^j^^pig 
other patriarchs, and a few years later that dig- 
nitary assumed the high-sounding title of "Universal Arch- 

1 See pages 217, 223. 



362 The Christian Church in the East and West 



bishop." The authority of the patriarch of Constantinople 

was immensely strengthened when the Mohammedans, having 

conquered Syria and Egypt, practically extinguished the three 

patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria.^ The 

Church in the East now had a single patriarch, just as that in 

the West had the one bishop of Rome. Rivalry between them 

was inevitable. 

One source of strife between pope and patriarch was the 

controversy, arising in the eighth century, over the use of 

^. , images in the churches. These images seem to 

Rivalry ^ 1 . /. x r 

between have been, not statues, but pictures (icons) of 

pope and apostles, saints, and martyrs. Many eastern 

patriarch . . /. 

Christians sought to strip the churches of icons, on 

the ground that by the ignorant they were venerated almost as 
idols. The Iconoclasts (''image-breakers") gained no support 
in the West. The Papacy took the view that images were a 
help to true devotion and might, therefore, be allowed. When 
a Roman emperor issued a decree for the destruction of all 
images, the pope refused to obey the order in the churches 
under his direction., and went so far as to exclude the Icono- 
clasts from Christian fellowship. Although the iconoclastic 
movement failed in the East, after a violent controversy, it 
helped still further to sharpen the antagonism between the 
two branches of Christendom. Other causes of dispute arose 
in later times, chiefly concerning fine points of doctrine on 
which neither side would yield. 

The final rupture of Christendom was delayed until the 
middle of the eleventh century. In 1054 a.d. the pope sent 
The final legates to Constantinople to demand obedi- 

rupture, ence to the Papacy. This being refused, they 
1054 A.D. -^^.^ upon the high altar of Sancta Sophia the 
pope's bill of excommunication. Against the patriarch and 
his followers they pronounced a solemn curse, or anathema, 
devoting them ^'to the eternal society of the Devil and his 
angels." Then, we are told, they strode out of Sancta Sophia, 
shaking the dust from their feet and crying, "Let God see and 
1 See page 376. 



The Greek Church 



363 



judge." The two branches of the Christian Church, thus torn 
apart, were never afterward reunited.^ 

128. The Greek Church 

The Greek and Roman churches, in some respects, are nearer 
together than Roman CathoHcism and Protestantism. Both 
recognize three orders for the ministry, namely, Greek 
bishops, priests, and deacons. Priests of the and Roman 
Greek Church may marry, but this privilege is ^^^^^^^^^ 
not extended to bishops, who, therefore, are chosen 
from the monks. Baptism, by both churches, is administered to 
infants, but by the Greek Church under the form of total immer- 
sion. Confirmation in the Greek Church follows immediately 
after baptism; in the Roman Church it is postponed to the 
age of reason. In the communion service the Greek Church 
gives leavened bread, dipped in wine. The Roman Church with- 
holds wine from the laity and uses only a dry, unleavened wafer. 
While the ser\ice3 of the Roman Church are conducted in Latin, 
for those of the Greek Church the national languages (Greek, 
Russian, etc.) of the communicants are used. Its festivals do 
not coincide in time of celebration with those of the Roman 
Church, since the "Julian Calendar" followed in the East is 
now thirteen days behind the "Gregorian Calendar." ^ 

The Greek Church has not lacked missionary zeal. Through 
her agency the barbarians who entered southeastern Europe 
during the early Middle Ages were converted to spread of 
Christianity. At the present time nearly all the the Greek 
peoples of the Balkan peninsula, including Greeks, 
Montenegrins, Serbians, Bulgarians, and Rumanians, belong 
to the Greek Church.^ Its greatest victory was won toward 
the close of the tenth century, when the Russians were induced 
to accept the Greek form of Christianity. Outlying branches of 

1 Unsuccessful attempts to heal the schism between the two churches took place 
in the Middle Ages. The latest movement in this direction was made by Pope Leo 
XIII in 1894 A.D., but his efforts were not crowned with success. 

2 See page 186, note 2. 

3 Many Roman CathoUcs are found in Croatia-Slavonia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and 
Albania. 



364 The Christian Church in the East and West 



the Greek Church are found also in the Turkish Empire. It 
now includes about one hundred and thirty-five million adher- 
ents in European lands. 

The patriarch of Constantinople is the spiritual head of the 
Greek Church. He enjoys, however, no such wide authority 

^ over eastern Christians as that exercised by the 

Present or- . 

ganization of pope over all Roman Catholics. There are as 

the Greek many as sixteen branches of the Greek Church, 
Chixrch . . 

each self-governing and under its own officers. 

Despite the local independence of its branches, the Greek Church 
remains unified in doctrine. It claims to be the only "Ortho- 
dox" church and cHngs with almost Oriental conservatism to the 
traditions of earlier ages. Nevertheless, as the official church 
of Russia, the largest and most swiftly growing of European 
countries, the Greek Church has before it a future of great 
importance. 

129. The Roman Church 

The separation of eastern and western Christianity naturally 
increased the importance of the Papacy. The popes hence- 
The Roman forth had a free hand to guide the destinies of 
Church the Roman Church. That church under their 

progressive direction was to show itself vigorous and pro- 
gressive, with a wonderful power of adaptation to new and 
changed conditions. 

The Roman Empire in the West had gone down before the 

assaults of the Germanic barbarians, but in its place had arisen 

^, ^ a new creation — the Roman Church. The chief 

The Roman 

Church sur- city of the old empire became the capital of the 
vives the Papacy. The pope took, and has since retained, 
the title of Supreme Pontiff {Pontifex Maximus), 
once given to the head of the Roman state religion. ^ Latin 
has continued to be the official language of Roman Catholicism. 
The Roman genius for law and government found a new expres- 
sion in the creation of the papal power. The true successors 
of the ancient Roman statesmen were the popes of the Middle 

1 See page 148, note 2. 



The Roman Church 



365 



Ages. The idea of Rome, of her universality and of her eter- 
nity, Hved on in the Roman Church. 

The Roman Church, as the successor of the Roman Empire 
in the West, formed the chief center of civilization during the 
earlier part of the Middle Ages. She stood between -^qj.^ of 
the conquering Germans and the Romanized the Roman 
provincials and helped to join them both in lasting ^^^^^ 
union. To the heathen she sent out her missionaries, preach- 
ing a religion of love and charity and introducing a higher 
morahty than the barbarians had ever known before. She 
multipUed hospitals, orphanages, and asylums. Her bishops 
were the only protectors of the weak and the oppressed. She 
fostered education, art, and learning within the walls of churches 
and monasteries. Her priests and monks were the only teachers 
in an ignorant age. In an age of bloodshed and violence, when 
might made right, she proclaimed the superiority of the spirit 
to mere brute force. To sum up: the Roman Church was an 
indispensable agent in the making of medieval Europe. 

Christianity in its Greek and Roman forms was not the only 
great religion of the Middle Ages. In the seventh century, 
before the separation of the two churches had ^j^^ menace 
been completed and before all Europe had become to Christen- 
Christian, another religion arose. It grew with 
marvelous rapidity, stripped the Church of much territory in 
w^estern Asia, northern Africa, and Spain, and promised for a 
time to become the dominant faith of the world. This was 
Islam, or Mohammedanism, the religion of the Arabs. 

Studies 

I. In what different senses is the word "church" often used? 2. "The eastern 
patriarch was the shadow of the emperor, cast on the spiritual world." Explain 
this statement. 3. Why did heresies develop in the East rather than in the West? 
4. Look up in the New Testament the following texts relating to the primacy of 
St. Peter: Matthew, xvi, 18-19; Luke, xxii, 31-32; and John, xxi, 15-17. 5. What 
is "the power of the keys" which the popes claim to possess? 6. What reasons for 
the growth of the Papacy have been set forth in this chapter? 7. In what non- 
Christian religions is monasticism an estabUshed institution? 8. Look up in the 
New Testament the following texts quoted as favorable to monasticism: Matthew, 
xix, 21; Mark, x, 29-30; and Luke, xiv, 26. 9. What is the origin of the words 
^'monk," "hermit," "anchorite," and "abbot"? 10. Summarize the principal 



366 The Christian Church in the East and West 



benefits which the monastic system conferred on Europe. 11. Give reasons for 
the rapid conversion of the Germans to Christianity. 12. In what sense is it true 
that "half Europe owes its Christianity to women"? 13. Who was the "Apostle 
to the Germans"? 14. Who were the "Apostles to the Slavs"? 15. Comment on 
the significance to European civihzation of the missionary activity of the Christian 
Church in the Middle Ages. 16. Why has the separation of the Greek and Roman 
churches been described as "the most momentous fact in the history of Christen- 
dom during the Middle Ages"? 17. Why could not such an institution as the 
Papacy develop in the East? 



CHAPTER XVI 



THE ORIENT AGAINST THE OCCIDENT: RISE AND 
SPREAD OF ISLAM, 622-1058 A.D.^ 

130. Arabia and the Arabs 

Arabia, a vast peninsula between the Persian Gulf, the 
Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, forms the hnk between Asia 
and Africa. It is connected with Asia by the The Arabian 
arid plains extending northward to the Euphrates; peninsula 
with Africa, by the equally arid isthmus of Suez. Though the 
country is more than one-third the size of the United States 
(excluding Alaska), it has never supported a large population. 
The interior, except for occasional oases, is a desert, inhabited 
only by wandering tribes. Along the southern and w^estern 
coasts, between the mountains and the sea, the soil is generally 
fertile, the cHmate temperate, and the rainfall sufficient. Here 
the chief cities and towns are located. 

The original home of the Semites is beheved to have been 
Arabia. Some Semitic peoples appear to have migrated 
northward to Babylonia and Syria, while others inhabitants 
crossed the Red Sea to Abyssinia. Physically, Arabia 
the Arabs are an attractive people, with well-shaped, muscular 
figures, handsome, bronzed faces, brilliant, black eyes, and all 
the organs of sense exquisitely acute. Simple and abstemious 
in their habits, they lead healthy lives and often reach an ex- 
treme yet vigorous old age. 

The Bedouin Arabs, by which name the nomadic inhabitants 
of the desert are known, claim Ishmael, the son of Abraham 
and hah-brother of Isaac, as their ancestor. The Bedou- 
life which they lead in the Arabian wilderness ins of the 
closely resembles that of the Hebrew patriarchs, 
as described in the Old Testament. The Bedouins are shep- 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter vi, "The Teachings 
of Mohammed." 

367 



Arabia and the Arabs 369 



herds and herdsmen, continually moving with their sheep and 
camels from one pasturage and water-hole to another. Their 
virtues — hospitality to the stranger, generosity, faithfulness 
to the ties of kinship — are those of a nomadic, barbarian people. 
Such also are their vices — love of fighting and plunder, re- 
vengefulness, and impatience of restraint. Nothing like a 
settled government is known to them. The only tribal author- 
ity is that of the chief, or "sheik," who, because of his 
birth, courage, or wealth, has been chosen to the leader- 
ship. This description of the Bedouins to-day applies equally 
well to them in the age of Mohammed, during the sixth 
century. 

The Arabs who settled along the southern and western 
coasts of the peninsula had reached in the sixth century a 
considerable degree of civilization. They prac- 
ticed agriculture and carried on a flourishing trade ^^bs" 
across the Red Sea and even to distant India. 
Between these sedentary Arabs and the Bedouins raged con- 
stant feuds, leading to much petty warfare. Nevertheless 
the hundreds of tribes throughout the peninsula preserved 
a feehng of national unity, which was greatly strengthened 
by Mohammed's appearance on the scene. 

The city of Mecca, located about fifty miles from the Red 
Sea, was a commercial metropolis and the center of Arabian 
heathenism. Every year the Arab tribes ceased Arabian 
fighting for four months, and went up to Mecca heathenism 
to buy and sell and visit the famous sanctuary called the Kaaba. 
Here were three hundred and sixty idols and a small, black 
stone (probably a meteorite), which legend declared had been 
brought from heaven. The stone was originally white, but 
the sins of the people who touched it had blackened it. Al- 
though most of the Arabs were idolaters, yet some of them 
recognized the ''Unknown God" of the Semites, Allah, the 
Creator of all things. Arabia at this time contained many 
Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians, who helped to spread 
abroad the conception of one God and thus to prepare the way 
for a prophet of a new religion. 



370 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



^ji^ (\V.:. laxO/ V ^iW-c 

,,/M'/ y/////m.UU,M;«'w ' i r% sli 



^JUS-^ >» 



131. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 A.D. 

Mohammed/ born at Mecca about 570 a.d., belonged to 
the tribe of the Koreish, who had long been guardians of the 
Early life of sacred Kaaba. Left an orphan at an early age, 
Mohammed future prophet was obliged to earn his own 

living. He served first as a shepherd on the hillsides of Mecca. 
This occupation, though lowly, gave him the love of solitude, 

and helped to nourish 
in his soul that ap- 
preciation of nature 
which later found ex- 
pression in so many 
of his utterances. 
While still a youth he 
became a camel-driver 
and twice crossed the 
deserts with caravans 
to Syria. Doubtless 
he made many ac- 
quaintances on these 
journeys and picked 
up much useful infor- 
mation. Mohammed, 
however, did not re- 
ceive a regular education; it is doubtful whether he could 
read or write. His marriage, when about twenty-five years of 
age, to a rich widow, named Khadija, brpught him wealth 
and consideration. For some time, henceforth, he led the life 
of a prosperous merchant of Mecca. 

Mohammed seems always to have been a deeply religious 
man. As he grew older, his thoughts more and more centered 
Mohammed's on spiritual themes. He could not reconcile the 
visions gross idolatry of the Arabs with that behef in the 

unity of God which he himself had reached. In his distress he 
would withdraw into the wilderness, where he spent much time 
in fasting and sohtary vigils, practices perhaps suggested to 

1 The earlier spelling was Mahomet. 




A Letter oe Mohammed 

A letter, probably in the handwriting of Mohammed's 
secretary, addressed to the governor of Alexandria. The 
seal is inscribed " Mohammed, the prophet of God." 



Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman 371 



him by the example of Christian hermits.^ During these lonely 
hours in the desert strange scenes passed before his eyes and 
strange voices sounded in his ears. At first Mohammed thought 
that evil spirits possessed him, but Khadija encouraged him to 
beheve that his visions were a revelation from another world. 
One day, so he declared, God's messenger, the archangel Gabriel, 
appeared to him and bade him preach a new religion to the 
Arabs. It was very simple, but in its simplicity lay its strength: 
''There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the prophet of 
God." 

The prophet made his first converts in his wife, his children, 
and the friends who knew him best. Then, becoming bolder, 
he began to preach pubhcly in Mecca. In spite The Hegira, 
of Mohammed's eloquence, obvious sincerity, and 
attractive personaHty, he met a discouraging reception. A 
few slaves and poor freemen became his followers, but most of 
the citizens of Mecca regarded him as a madman. Moham- 
med's disciples, called Moslems,^ were bitterly persecuted by 
the Koreish, w^ho resented the prophet's attacks on idolatry 
and feared the loss of their privileges at the Kaaba. Finally 
Mohammed and his converts took refuge in Medina, where 
some of the inhabitants had already accepted his teachings. 
This was the famous Hegira (Fhght of the prophet) 

At Medina Mohammed occupied a position of high honor and 
influence. The people welcomed him gladly and made him their 
chief magistrate. As his adherents increased in Later life of 
number, Mohammed began to combine fighting Mohammed 
with preaching. His mihtary expeditions against the Arab 
tribes proved to be very successful. Many of the conquered 
Bedouins enlisted under his banner and in 630 a.d. captured 
Mecca for the prophet. He treated its inhabitants leniently, 

1 See page 352. 

2 From the Arabic muslim, "one who surrenders himself" (to God's will). Dur- 
ing the Middle Ages the Moslems to their Christian enemies were commonly 
known as Saracens, a term which is still in use. 

3 The year 622 A.D., in which the Hegira occurred, marks the beginning of the 
Mohammedan era. The Christian year 1917 a.d. nearly corresponds to the Mo- 
hammedan year 1336 a.h. {Anno Hegirce). 



372 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



but threw down all the idols in the Kaaba. After the submis- 
sion of Mecca most of the Arabs abandoned idolatry and ac- 
cepted the new religion. 

Mohammed did not long enjoy his position as uncrowned 
king of Arabia. He died in 632 a.d., at Medina, where he 
Death of buried and where his tomb is still visited by 

Mohammed, pious Moslems. His followers could scarcely 
632 AD 

beheve that their great prophet had gone away 
from them forever. They were ready to worship him as a god, 
until old Abu Bekr, Mohammed's father-in-law, rebuked them 
with the memorable words: "Whoso worshipeth Mohammed, 
let him know that Mohammed is dead; but whoso worshipeth 
God, let him know that God hveth and dieth not." 

The character of Mohammed has been variously estimated. 
Moslem writers make him a saint; Christian writers, until 
Mohammed's recent times, have called him an "impostor." 
character know that he was a man of simple habits, 

who, even in the days of his prosperity, lived on dates, barley 
bread, and water, mended his woolen garments, and attended 
to his own wants. He was mild and gentle, a lover of children, 
devoted to his friends, and forgiving toward his foes. He seems 
to have won the admiration of all with whom he came in con- 
tact. We know, too, that Mohammed was so deeply impressed 
with the consciousness of his religious mission that he was 
ready to give up wealth and an honorable position and face for 
years the ridicule and hatred of the people of Mecca. His 
faults — deceitfulness, superstitiousness, sensuality — were those 
of the Arabs of his time. Their existence in Mohammed's 
character should not prevent our recognition of his real great- 
ness as a prophet and as a statesman. 

132. Islam and the Koran 

The religion which Mohammed preached is called Islam, 
an Arabic word meaning "surrender," or "resignation." This 
Formation of religion has its sacred book, the Koran ("thing 
the Koran read" or "thing recited"). It contains the 
speeches, prayers, and other utterances of Mohammed at 



Islam and the Koran 



373 



various times during his career. Some parts of the Koran 
were dictated by the prophet to his disciples and by them 
were written out on skins, leaves of palm trees, bones, and 
bits of parchment. Many other parts remained at first 
only in the memory of Mohammed's followers. Soon after 
his death all the scattered passages were collected into one 




A Passage from: the Koran 

From a manuscript in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. 



book. Since the middle of the seventh century the Koran, 
every word of which the Moslems consider holy, has remained 
unchanged. 

The doctrines found in the Koran show many adaptations from 
the Jewish and Christian religions. Like them Islam empha- 
sizes the unity of God. The Moslem cry — Religious 
"Allah Akbarr' "God is Great !"— forms its teachings of 
cardinal principle. Like them, also, Islam recog- ^oran 
nizes the existence of prophets, including Abraham, Moses, 
and Jesus, but insists that Mohammed was the last and great- 
est of the prophets. The existence of angels and demons is 
recognized. The chief of the demons, Iblis, bears some resem- 
blance to the Jewish Satan and the Christian Devil. The 
account of the creation and fall of man is taken, with varia- 
tions, from the Old Testament. The description of the resur- 



374 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



rection of the dead, the last judgment, and the division of the 
future world into paradise and hell, the former for believers in 
Islam, the latter for those who have refused to accept it, seems 
to have been based on Persian and Jewish ideas. These borrow- 
ings from other religions facihtated the spread of Islam among 
eastern peoples. 

The Koran imposes on the faithful Moslem five great obli- 
gations. First, he must recite, at least once in his life, aloud, 
Observances correctly, and with full understanding, the short 
of Islam creed: "There is no god but God, and Mohammed 
is the prophet of God." Second, he must pray five tinies a 
day: at dawn, just after noon, before sunset, just after sunset, 
and at the end of the day. In every Mohammedan city the 
hour of prayer is announced from the tall minaret of the mosque 
by a crier (muezzin). Before engaging in prayer the worshiper 
washes face, hands, and feet; during the prayer he turns toward 
Mecca and bows his head to the ground. Third, he must ob- 
serve a strict fast, from morning to night, during every day of 
Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year.^ In 
this month God presented the Koran to Gabriel for revelation 
to the prophet. Fourth, he must give alms to the poor. Fifth, 
he must, ''if he is able," undertake at least one pilgrimage to 
Mecca. The annual visit of thousands of pilgrims to the holy 
city helps to preserve the feeling of brotherhood among Mos- 
lems all over the world. These five obHgations are the "pillars " 
of Islam. 

As a religious system Islam is exceedingly simple. It does 
not provide any elaborate ceremonies of worship and permits 
Organization no altars, pictures, or images in the mosque, 
of Islam Islam even lacks a priesthood. Every Moslem 
acts as his own priest. There is, however, an ofiicial, who on 
Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, offers up pubHc prayers 
in the mosque and dehvers a sermon to the assembled worshipers. 
All work is suspended during this service, but at its close secular 
activities are resumed. 

The Koran furnishes a moral code for the adherents of Islam. 

1 Feasting during the nights of this month is allowable. 



Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 375 

It contains a few important prohibitions. The Moslem is 
not to make images, to engage in games of chance, Moral teach- 
to eat pork, or to drink wine. This last prohibi- ings of the 
tion has saved the Mohammedan world' from the 
degradation and misery which alcohol has introduced into 
Christian lands. To Mohammed strong drink was "the 
mother of all evil," and drunkenness, a sin. The Koran also 
inculcates many active virtues, including reverence toward 
parents, protection of widows and orphans, charity toward 
the poor, kindness to slaves, and gentle treatment of the lower 
animals. On the whole it must be admitted that the laws of 
the Koran did much to restrain the vices of the Arabs and to 
provide them with higher standards of right and wrong. Islam 
marked a great advance over Arabian heathenism. 

133. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 

Mohammed, as we have learned, did not scruple to use the 
sword as a means of spreading his new religion among the 
idolatrous Arab tribes. By thus following up islam spread 
preaching with force, he subdued the greater sword 
part of Arabia. The prophet's methods were adopted by his 
successors. Within a century after Mohammed's death, they 
carried the doctrines of Islam over a large part of the civiHzed 
world and founded an Arabian Empire. 

Islam was a religion of conquest. It proclaimed the right- 
eousness of a "holy war," or jihad, against unbelievers. It 
promised rich booty for those who fought and igjam ^s a 
won, and paradise for those who fell. The Arab religion of 
soldier, dying on the battlefield, expected to be ^^^^'i"®^* 
carried away by bright-eyed maidens to a garden of delight, 
where, rechning on soft cushions and rugs, he was to enjoy 
forever an existence of sensual ease. "Whosoever falls in 
battle," so runs a passage in the Koran, "his sins are forgiven, 
and at the day of judgment his limbs shall be suppHed by the 
wings of angels and cherubim." 

The sudden creation of the Arabian power must not be under- 
stood, however, as solely a religious movement. Pride and 



376 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



greed, as well as fanaticism, drove the Arabs forward on their 
Islam as a conquering career. Long before Mohammed's 
political time Arabia had been in a state of unrest. Its 
warlike tribes, feehng a sense of their superiority 
to other peoples, were eager to overrun the rich districts of 
western Asia, much as the Germans had overrun western 
Europe. Islam strengthened the racial pride of the Arabs, 
united them into one nation, and gave them an effective 
organization for world-wide rule. 

The most extensive conquests of the Arabs were made within 
ten years after Mohammed's death. During this time the 
Arab con Moslem warriors, though poorly armed, ill-dis- 
quests in the ciplined, and in every battle greatly outnumbered, 
Ea^t, 632-642 attacked with success the two strongest mihtary 
powers then in the world — Rome and Persia. 
From the Roman Empire in the East they seized the provinces 
of Syria and Palestine, with the famous cities of Damascus, 
Antioch, and Jerusalem.^ They took Mesopotamia from the 
Persians and then, invading Iran, overthrew the Persian power 
Egypt also was subjugated by these irresistible soldiers of the 
Crescent. 

According to the strict teaching of the Koran, those who 
refused to accept Islam, were either to be killed or to be reduced 
, to slavery. As a matter of fact, the Arabs treated 

Treatment of , . ^ . . ^ , , i-i i- 

the con- their new subjects with marked liberality. JNo 

quered massacres and no persecutions occurred. The 

peoples 

conquered peoples were allowed to retain their 
own religions, on condition of paying ample tribute. In course 
of time, however, many of the Christians in Syria and Egypt 
and most of the Zoroastrians ^ in Persia adopted Islam, in 
order that they might acquire the rights and privileges of 
Moslem citizens. 

The sweeping conquests of the decade 632-642 a.d. were fol- 
Later Arab lowed in later years by a further extension of the 
conquests boundaries of the Arabian Empire. In the re- 
mote East the Arabs sent their victorious armies beyond the 

I See page 333. 2 See pages 219, 332. s See page 54, note i. 



Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 377 

Oxus and Indus rivers to central Asia and India. They cap- 
tured the island of Cyprus, annexed parts of Armenia and 
Asia Minor, and at length threatened to take Constantinople. 
Had that city fallen, all eastern Europe would have been laid 
open to invasion. 

The first attempts on Constantinople were made by sea and 
were repulsed, but during the years 716-717 a.d. the city had 

to face a combined attack by a Moslem navy and „. 

T- 1 -r . Siege of 
army. The eastern emperor, Leo the Isaurian, Constanti- 

conducted a heroic defense, using with much 

efi'ectiveness the celebrated mixture known as 

Greek fire." This combustible, probably composed of sulphur, 




Naval Battle Showing Use of " Geeek FniE " 



From a Byzantine manuscript of the fourteenth century at Madrid. "Greek fire" in 
marine warfare was most commonly propelled through long tubes of copper, which were placed 
on the prow of a ship and managed by a gunner. Conbustibles might also be kept in tubes 
flung by hand and exploded on board the enemy's vessel. 

naphtha, and quickhme, was poured or hurled on the enemy's 
ships in order to burn them. "Greek fire," the rigors of an 
uncommonly severe winter, and timely aid from the Bulgarians 
at length compelled the Arabs to beat a retreat. Their failure 
to take Constantinople gave the Roman Empire in the East 
another long lease of life. 



378 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



134. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain 

Though repulsed before the impregnable walls of Constanti- 
nople, the Arabs continued to win new dominions in other 
North Africa parts of the Christian world. After their occupa- 
subdued ^-^qj^ Egypt, they began to overrun North 
Africa, which Justinian, little more than a century earlier, 
had reconquered from the Vandals.^ The Romanized provin- 
cials, groaning under the burdensome taxes imposed on them 
by the eastern emperors, made only a slight resistance to the 
Moslem armies. A few of the great cities held out for a time, 
but after the capture and destruction of Carthage^ in 698 a.d., 
Arab rule was soon established over the whole extent of the 
Mediterranean coast from Egypt to the Atlantic. 

Islam made in North Africa one of its most permanent con- 
quests. After the coming of the Arabs many of the Christian 
Arabs and inhabitants appear to have withdrawn to Spain 
Berbers ^^^^ Sicily, leaving the field clear for the introduc- 
tion of Arabian civilization. The Arabs who settled in North 
Africa gave their religion and government to the Berbers, 
as the natives of the country were called, and to some 
extent intermingled with them. Arabs and Berbers still 
comprise the population of North Africa, though their once 
independent states have now been absorbed by European 
powers.^ 

With North Africa in their hands the Moslems did not long 

delay the invasion of Spain. In 711 a.d. an army of Arabs 

and Berbers, under their leader Tarik, crossed the 
Subjugation . i . , -n i 

of Spain Strait which still bears his name * and for the 
71iTd ^^^^ time confronted the Germans. The Visi- 
gothic kingdom,^ already much enfeebled, proved 
to be an easy prey. A single battle made the invaders masters 
of half of Spain. Within a few years their hosts swept northward 

1 See page 330. 2 See page 245. 

3 Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis belong to France; Tripoli, to Italy. 

4 Gibraltar = Gibal al Tarik, "the mountain of Tarik." 
6 See pages 244-245. 



The Caliphate and its Disruption 379 



to the Pyrenees. Only small districts in the northern part of 
the Spanish peninsula remained unconquered. 

The Moslems were not stopped by the Pyrenees. Crossing 
these mountains, they captured many of the old Roman cities 
in the south of Gaul and then advanced to the j^^ie Moslem 
north, attracted, apparently, by the booty to be advance in 
found in Christian monasteries and churches. 
In the vicinity of Tours they encountered the great army which 
Charles Martel, the chief minister of the Prankish king,^ had 
collected to oppose their advance. 

The battle of Tours seems to have continued for several 
days. Of its details we know nothing, though a Spanish chron- 
icler tells us that the heavy infantry of the Franks guttle of 

stood "immovable as a wall, inflexible as a block Tours, 

732 A D 

of ice" against the desperate assaults of the 
Moslem horsemen. When the Franks, after the last day's 
fighting, wished to renew the struggle, they found that the 
enemy had fled, leaving a camp filled with the spoils of war. 
This engagement, though famous in history, was scarcely 
decisive. For some time afterward the Moslems maintained 
themselves in southern Gaul. It was the Prankish ruler, 
Pepin the Short, who annexed their possessions there and drove 
them back across the Pyrenees to Spain.^ 



135. The Caliphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 A.D. 

Only eighteen years after the battle of Tours, the Arabian 
Empire was divided into two rival and more or less hostile parts, 
which came to be called the Eastern and Western ^^^^ 
cahphates. The title of caliph, meaning ''sue- "Orthodox" 
cessor" or "representative," had first been assumed ^^li^^!; . ^ 
by Mohammed's father-in-law, Abu Bekr, who 
was chosen to succeed the prophet as the civil and religious 
head of the Moslem w^orld. After him followed Omar, who had 
been one of Mohammed's most faithful adherents, and then 
Othman and AH, both sons-in-law of Mohammed. These 

1 See page 306. 2 -por Charlemagne's Spanish conquests, see page 309. 



38o 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



four rulers are sometimes known as the ''Orthodox" caliphs, 
because their right to the succession was universally acknowl- 
edged by Moslems. 

After Ali's death the governor of Syria, Moawiya by name, 
succeeded in making himself caliph of the Moslem w^orld. 
Ommiad '^^^^ usurper converted the caliphate into a hered- 
caliphs at itary, instead of an elective, office, and established 
66^1-75^1' D dynasty of the Ommiads.^ Their capital 

was no longer Medina in Arabia, but the Syrian 
city of Damascus. The descendants of Mohammed's family 
refused, however, to recognize the Ommiads as legitimate 
caliphs. In 750 a.d. a sudden revolt, headed by the party of 
the Abbasids,^ established a new dynasty. The Abbasids 
treacherously murdered nearly all the members of the Ommiad 
family, but one survivor escaped to Spain, where he founded 
at Cordova an independent Ommiad dynasty.^ North Africa, 
also, before long separated itself from Abbasid rule. Thus 
the once united caliphate, like the old Roman Empire, split 
in twain. 

The Abbasids continued to reign over the Moslems in Asia 
for more than three hundred years. The most celebrated of 
The Abbasid Abbasid caliphs was Harun-al-Rashid (Aaron 
caliphs, the lust), a contemporary of Charlemagne, to 

750-1058 A.D. ^Yiom the Arab ruler sent several presents, includ- 
ing an elephant and a water-clock which struck the hours. 
The tales of Harun-al-Rashid's magnificence, his gold and 
silver, his silks and gems, his rugs and tapestries, reflect the 
luxurious life of the Abbasid rulers. Gradually, however, 
their power declined, and in 1058 a.d. the Seljuk Turks,^ recent 
converts to Islam, deprived them of their power. A Turkish 
chieftain, with the title of "King of the East and West," then 
took the place of the Arabian caliph, though the latter remained 
the religious head of Islam. He lost even this spiritual author- 

1 So called from a leading family of Mecca, to which Moawiya belonged. 

2 So called from Abbas, an uncle of Mohammed. 

3 This was at first known as the emirate of Cordova, but in 929 a.d. it became 
the cahphate of Cordova. See the map facing page 306. 

4 See page 333. 



Arabian Civilization 



381 



ity, just two centuries later, when the Mongols from central 
Asia overran the Turkish dominions. ^ 

The Abbasids removed their capital from Damascus to 
Bagdad on the banks of the middle Euphrates. The new city, 
under the fostering care of the caliphs, grew with ^^^^^^ 
great rapidity. Its population in the ninth cen- 
tury is said to have reached two millions. For a time it was 
the largest and richest city in the Moslem world. How its 
splendor impressed the imagination may be seen from the 
stories of the Thousand and One Nights} After the extinction 
of the Abbasid caliphate, its importance as the religious and 
political center of Islam declined. But memories of the former 
grandeur of Bagdad still cling to it, and even to-day it is re- 
ferred to in Turkish official documents as the "glorious city." 

It was a very great misfortune for the eastern world when 

the Arabian Empire passed under the control of rude Asiatic 

peoples. The Turks accepted Islam, but they Extinction 

did little to preserve and extend Arabian civiliza- °} 

nni • T • r Arabian 

tion. The stagnant, non-progressive condition of Empire a 

the East at the present time is largely due to the misfortune 
misgovernment of its Turkish conquerors. 



136. Arabian Civilization 

The great Moslem cities of Bagdad, Damascus, Cairo, and 
Cordova were not only seats of government for the different 
divisions of the Arabian Empire; they were also -j.jjg ^rabs 
the centers of Arabian civilization. The conquests as absorbers 
of the Arabs had brought them into contact with civilization 
highly developed peoples whose culture they absorbed and 
to some extent improved. They owed most to Persia and, 

1 See page 485. Descendants of the Abbasids subsequently took up their 
abode in Egypt. Through them the claim to the caliphate passed in 1538 a.d. 
to the Ottoman Turks. The Sultan at Constantinople still calls himself caliph 
of the Moslem world. However, in 1916 a.d. the Grand Sherif of Mecca, a 
descendant of Mohammed, led a revolt against the Turks, captured Mecca and 
Medina, and proclaimed Arab independence. Should the European war end in 
favor of the Allies, the caliphate will undoubtedly go back to the Arabs. 

2 Popularly called the Arabian Nights. 



382 Rise and Spread of Islam 

after Persia, to Greece, through the empire at Constantinople. 
In their hands there was somewhat the same fusion of East 
and West as Alexander the Great had sought to accompHsh.^ 
Greek science and philosophy mingled with the arts of Persia 
and other Oriental lands. Arabian civilization, for about four 
centuries under the Ommiad and Abbasid caliphs, far surpassed 
anything to be found in western Europe. 

Many improvements in agriculture were due to the Arabs. 
They had a good system of irrigation, practiced rotation of 
Agriculture crops, employed fertilizers, and understood how 
to graft and produce new varieties of plants and 
fruits. From the Arabs we have received cotton, flax, hemp, 
buckwheat, rice, sugar cane, and coffee, various vegetables, 
including asparagus, artichokes, and beans, and such fruits as 
melons, oranges, lemons, apricots, and plums. 

The Arabs excelled in various manufactures. Damascus 
was famous for its brocades, tapestries, and blades of tempered 
Manufac- Steel. The Moorish cities in Spain had also their 
tunng special productions: Cordova, leather; Toledo, 

armor; and Granada, rich silks. Arab craftsmen taught the 
Venetians to make crystal and plate glass. The work of Arab 
potters and weavers was at once the admiration and despair 
of its imitators in western Europe. The Arabs knew the 
secrets of dyeing and they made a kind of paper. Their textile 
fabrics and articles of metal were distinguished for beauty of 
design and perfection of workmanship, European peoples 
during the early Middle Ages received the greater part of their 
manufactured articles of luxury through the Arabs.^ 

The products of Arab farms and workshops were carried far 

and wide throughout medieval lands. The Arabs were keen 

merchants, and Mohammed had expressly encour- 
Commerce 1,. . 11 ^i 

aged commerce by declarmg it agreeable to God. 

The Arabs traded with India, China, the East Indies (Java 

1 See page 126. 

2 The European names of some common articles reveal the Arabic sources 
from which they were first derived. Thus, damask comes from Damascus, muslin 
from Mosul, gauze from Gaza, cordovan (a kind of leather) from Cordova, and 
morocco leather from North Africa. 



Arabian Civilization 



383 



and Sumatra), the interior of Africa, Russia, and even with 
the Baltic lands. Bagdad, which commanded both land and 
water routes, was the chief center of this commerce, but 
other cities of western Asia, North Africa, and Spain shared 
in its advantages. The bazaar, or merchants' quarter, was 
found in every Moslem city. 

The trade of the Arabs, their wide conquests, and their 
religious pilgrimages to Mecca vastly increased their knowledge 
of the world. They were the best geographers of Geographical 
the Middle Ages. An Abbasid caliph, the son of knowledge 
Harun-al-Rashid, had the Greek Geography of Ptolemy ^ trans- 
lated into Arabic and enriched the work with illuminated maps. 
Arab scholars compiled encyclopedias describing foreign coun- 
tries and peoples, constructed celestial spheres, and measured 
closely the arc of the meridian in order to calculate the size of 
the earth. There is some reason to believe that the mariner's 
compass was first introduced into Europe by the Arabs. 
The geographical knowledge of Christian peoples during the 
Middle Ages owed much, indeed, to their Moslem fore- 
runners. 

Schools and universities flourished in Moslem lands when 
Christian Europe was still in the "Dark Ages." The largest 

institution of learning was at Cairo, where the 

c n -, 1 1 Education 

lectures of the professors were attended by thou- 
sands of students. Famous universities also existed in Bag- 
dad and Cordova. Moslem scholars especially delighted in 
the study of philosophy. Arabic translations of Aristotle's^ 
writings made the ideas of that great thinker famihar to the 
students of western Europe, where the knowledge of Greek had 
all but died out. The Arabs also formed extensive libraries 
of many thousands of manuscripts, all carefully arranged and 
catalogued. Their libraries and universities, especially in 
Spain, were visited by many Christians, who thus became ac- 
quainted with Moslem learning and helped to introduce it 
into Europe. 

The Arabs have been considered to be the founders of modern 

1 See page 133. 2 gee page 275. 



3^4 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



experimental science. They were relatively skillful chemists, 
Chemistry for they discovered a number of new compounds 
and medicine (such as alcohol, aqua regia, nitric acid, and cor- 
rosive subhmate) and understood the preparation of mercury 
and of various oxides of metals. In medicine the Arabs based 
their investigations on those of the Greeks,^ but made many 
additional contributions to the art of healing. They studied 




Interior or the Mosque of Cordova 



The great mosque of Cordova, begun in the eighth century, was gradually enlarged during 
the following centuries to its present dimensions, 570 by 425 feet. The building, one of the 
largest in the world, has now been turned into a cathedral. The most striking feature of the 
interior is the forest of porphyry, jasper, and marble pillars supporting open Moorish arches. 
Originally there were 1200 of these pillars, but many have been destroyed. 

physiology and hygiene, dissected the human body, per- 
formed difficult surgical operations, used anaesthetics, and 
wrote treatises on such diseases as measles and smallpox. 
Arab medicine and surgery were studied by the Christian 
peoples of Europe throughout the later period of the Middle 
Ages. 

The Arabs had a strong taste for mathematics. Here again 
they carried further the old Greek investigations. In arith- 

1 See page 131. 



Arabian Civilization 



38s 



metic they used the so-called " Arabic figures, which were 
probably borrowed from India. The Arabic nu- Mathematics 
merals gradually supplanted in western Europe and astron- 
the awkward Roman numerals. In geometry the 
Arabs added little to Euclid, but algebra is practically their 
creation. An Arabic treatise on algebra long formed the text- 
book of the subject in the universities of Christian Europe. 
Spherical trigonometry and conic sections are Arabic inventions. 
This mathematical knowledge enabled the Arabs to make con- 
siderable progress in astronomy. Observatories at Bagdad and 
Damascus were erected as early as the ninth century. Some of 
the astronomical instruments which they constructed, includ- 
ing the sextant and the gnomon, are still in use.^ 

In prose and verse there are two Moslem productions which 
have attained wide popularity in European lands. The first 
work is the Thousand and One Nights, a collection Romance 
of tales written in Arabic and describing life and poetry 
manners at the court of the Abbasids. The book, as we now 
have it, seems to have been composed as late as the fifteenth 
century, but it borrows much from earlier Arabic sources. 
Many of the tales are of Indian or Persian origin, but all have 
a thoroughly Moslem coloring. The second work is the Ru- 
hdiydt of the astronomer-poet of Persia, Omar Khayyam, who 
wrote about the beginning of the twelfth century. His Ruhdiydt 
is a little volume of quatrains, about five hundred in all, dis- 
tinguished for wit, satirical power, and a vein of melancholy, 
sometimes pensive, sometimes passionate. These character- 
istics of Omar's poetry have made it widely known in the 
western world.^ 

Painting and sculpture owe httle to the Arabs, but their 
architecture, based in part on Byzantine and Persian models, 
reached a high level of excellence. Swelling domes, vaulted 

1 Many words in European languages beginning with the prefix al (the definite 
article in Arabic) show how indebted was Europe to the Arabs for scientific knowl- 
edge. In Enghsh these words include alchemy (whence chemistry), alcohol, alembic, 
algebra, alkali, almanac, Aldebaran (the star), etc. 

2 The translation of the Rubdiydt by Edward Fitzgerald is ahnost an English 
classic. 



386 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



Architecture 



roofs, arched porches, tall and graceful minarets, and the exqui- 
site decorative patterns known as ''arabesques" make many 

Arab buildings miracles 
of beauty. Glazed tiles, 
mosaics, and jeweled glass were ex- 
tensively used for ornamentation. 
From the first the Arab builders 
adopted the pointed arch; they in- 
troduced it into western Europe; and 
it became a characteristic feature of 
Gothic cathedrals.^ Among the best- 
known of Arab buildings are the 
so-called ''Mosque of Omar" at 
Jerusalem,^ the Great Mosque of 
Cordova, and that architectural gem, 
the Alhambra at Granada. Many 
features of Moorish art were taken 
over by the Spaniards, who repro- 
duced them in the cathedrals and 
missions of Mexico and California. 




Capitals and Ai^abesques 
FROM THE Alhambra 



One of Mohammed's laws for- 
bidding the use of idols was sub- 
sequently expanded by religious 
teachers into a prohibition of all 
imitations of human or animal 
forms in art. Sculptors who ob- 
served this prohibition relied for 
ornamentation on intricate geo- 
metrical designs known as ara- 
besques. These were carved in 
stone or molded in plaster. 



137. The Influence of Islam 

The division of the Arabian Em- 
pire into rival caliphates did not check 
Growth of the spread of Islam. 
Islam xhe Turks and Mongols 

during the Middle Ages carried it to the uttermost regions of 
Asia and throughout southeastern Europe. Some parts of the 
territory thus gained by it have since been lost. Spain and 
the Balkan peninsula are once more Christian lands. In other 
parts of the world, and notably in Africa and India, the religion 
of Mohammed is spreading faster than any other creed. Islam 
to-day claims about two hundred million adherents. 

The growth of Islam is evidence that it meets the needs of 
Asiatic and African peoples. Its simple creed — the unity of 
God, man's immortal soul, and material rewards and penal- 

1 See page 564. 2 See the illustration, page 471. 



FOUNTAIN OF THE LIONS IN THE ALHAMBRA 



The most remarkable feature of the Alhamhra is the Court of the Lions. It measures ii6 
feet in length by 66 feet in breadth. A gallery supported on marble columns surrounds the 
court. In the center is the Fountain of Lions, an alabaster basin resting on the backs of 12 
marble lions. 



The Influence of Islam 



387 



ties in a future life — adapt it to the understanding of haK- 
civilized peoples. As a religion it is immeasurably The benefits 
superior to the rude nature worship and idolatry islam 
which it has supplanted. The same is true of Islam as a system 
of morality. The practice of the virtues recommended by the 
Koran and the avoidance of the vices which that book condemns 
tend to raise its adherents in the moral scale. 

From the moral standpoint one of the least satisfactory fea- 
tures of Islam is its attitude toward women. The ancient 
Arabs, hke many other peoples, seem to have set Treatment 
no hmit to the number of wives a man might women 
possess. Women were regarded by them as mere chattels, and 
female infants were frequently put to death. Mohammed 
recognized polygamy, but hmited the number of legitimate 
wives to four. At the same time Mohammed sought to improve 
the condition of w^omen by forbidding female infanticide, by 
restricting the facihties for divorce, and by insisting on kind 
treatment of wives by their husbands. "The best of you," 
he said, "is he who behaves best to his wives." According to 
eastern custom Moslem women are secluded in a separate part 
of the house, caUed the harem.^ They never appear in public, 
except when closely veiled from the eyes of strangers. Their 
education is also much neglected. 

Slavery, like polygamy, w^as a custom which Mohammed 

found fully established among the Arabs. He disliked slavery 

and tried in several ways to lessen its evils. He 

. . Slavery 
declared that the emancipation of Moslem slaves 

was an act of special merit, and ordered that in a war between 
Moslems the prisoners were not to be enslaved. Mohammed 
also insisted on kind treatment of slaves by their masters. 
"Feed your slaves," he directed, "with food of that which you 
eat and clothe them with such clothing as you wear, and com- 
mand them not to do that which they are unable to do." 
The condition of Moslem slaves does not appear to be in- 
tolerable, though the slave traffic which still exists in some 
parts of Africa is a disgrace to Islam. 

1 The Athenians had a sunilar practice. See page 257. 



388 



Rise and Spread of Islam 



Studies 

I. On an outline map indicate the Arabian Empire at its widest extent. Lo- 
cate the more important cities, including Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, 
Bagdad, Cairo, Alexandria, Granada, Cordova, and Seville. 2. Define the follow- 
ing: Kaaba; Islam; Koran; and caliph. 3. How did the geographical situation 
of Arabia preserve it from being conquered by Persians, Macedonians, or Romans? 
4. Why had the Arabs, vmtil the time of Mohammed, played so inconspicuous 
a part in the history of the world? 5. Mohammed "began as a mule driver and 
ended as both a pope and a king." Explain this statement. 6. How does Moham- 
med's career in Mecca illustrate the saying that "a prophet is not without honor 
save in his own country"? 7. What resemblances may be traced between Islam on 
the one side and Judaism and Christianity on the other side? 8. Did religion have 
anything to do with the migrations of the Germans? How was it with the Arabs? 
g. Contrast the methods of propagating Christianity in Europe with those of spread- 
ing Islam in Asia. 10. Why is the defeat of the Moslems before Constantinople re- 
garded as more significant than their defeat at the battle of Tours? 1 1 . Compare 
the eastern limits of the Arabian Empire with those of Alexander's empire (maps 
facing pages 1 24, 376) . 12. Show that the Arabian Empire, because of its geographi- 
cal position, was less easily defended than the Roman Empire. 13. Locate on 
the map facing page 376 the following commercial cities in the Arabian Empire: 
Samarkand; Cabul; Bokhara; Mosul; Kairwan; Fez; Seville; and Toledo. 14. Can 
you suggest any reason why the Arabs did Httle in painting and sculpture? 15. 
What are some of the best-known stories in the Thousand and One Nights? 16. Dis- 
cuss the justice of this statement: "If our ideas and our arts go back to antiquity, 
all the inventions which make life easy and agreeable come to us from the Arabs." 
17. "From the eighth to the twelfth century the world knew but two civilizations, 
that of Byzantium and that of the Arabs." Comment on this statement. 18. Show 
that Islam was an heir to the Graeco-Oriental civilization. 19. Can you suggest 
any reasons why Islam to-day spreads among the African negroes more rapidly than 
Christianity? 20. How does Islam, by sanctioning polygamy and slavery, hinder 
the rise of women and of the working classes? 



CHAPTER XVII 



THE NORTHMEN AND THE NORMANS TO 1066 A.D.^ 

138. Scandinavia and the Northmen 

From the East we return once more to the West, from Asia 
to Europe, from Arabia to Scandinavia. We have now to deal 
with the raids and settlements of the Norsemen a new series 
or Northmen. Like the Arabs the Northmen «^ migrations 
quitted a sterile peninsula and went forth to find better homes 
in distant lands. Their invasions, beginning toward the close 
of the eighth century, lasted about three hundred years. 

The Northmen belonged to the Teutonic family of peoples. 
They were kinsmen of the Germans, the Anglo-Saxons, and 
the Dutch. Their migrations may be regarded, a Teutonic 
therefore, as the last wave of that great Teutonic movement 
movement which in earlier times had inundated western Europe 
and overwhelmed the Roman Empire. 

The Northmen lived, as their descendants still live, in Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Norway. 
The name Scandinavia is some- 
times applied to ^ 

. Scandinavia 
all three countries, 

but more commonly it is re- 
stricted to the peninsula com- 

c J J AT Swedish Rock Carving 

prismg Sweden and Norway. 

Sweden, with the exception Shows a man plowing. 

of the northern highlands, is mostly a level region, watered 
by copious streams, dotted with many lakes, and g^^^^^ 
sinking down gradually to the Baltic Sea and 
the Gulf of Bothnia. The fact that Sweden faces these inland 
waters determined the course of her development as a nation. 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter vii, "The Saga 
of a Viking"; chapter viii, "Alfred the Great"; chapter ix, " WilUam the Conqueror 
and the Normans in England." 

389 




390 The Northmen and the Normans 



Norway 



She never has had any aspirations to become a great oceanic 
power. Her whole historic Hfe has centered about the Baltic. 

Norway, in contrast to Sweden, faces the Atlantic. The 
country is little more than a strip of rugged seacoast reach- 
ing northward to well within the Arctic Circle. 
Were it not for the influence of the " Gulf Stream 
drift," much of Norway would be a frozen waste for the 
greater part of the year. Vast forests of fir, pine, and birch 

still cover the greater part of 
the country, and the land 
which can be used for farming 
and grazing does not exceed 
eleven per cent of the entire 
area. But Norway, like 
Greece,^ has an extent of 
shore-line out of all propor- 
tion to its superficial area. 
So numerous are the fiords, 
or inlets of the sea, that the 
total length of the coast 
approximates twelve thousand 
miles. Slight wonder that the 
Vikings,^ as they called them- 
selves, should feel the lure of 
the ocean and should put forth 
in their frail barks upon the 
"pathway of the swans" in 
search of booty and adventure. 
The Swedes and Norwegians, together with their kinsmen, 
the Danes, probably settled in Scandinavia long before the 
Prehistoric beginning of the Christian era. During the 

times in earlier part of the prehistoric period the inhab- 
Scandinavia .^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^^ g^^^^ ^^^^ ^£ 

bronze, and then of iron, was gradually introduced. Excava- 




A Runic Stone 



A stone, twelve feet high and six feet wide, 
in the churchyard of Rok, Ostergotland, Swe- 
den. The runic inscription, which contains 
more than 760 letters, is the longest known. 



1 See page 67. 

2 The word perhaps comes from the old Norse vik, a bay, and means "one who 
dwells by a bay or fiord." Another meaning assigned to Viking is "warrior." 



Scandinavia and the Northmen 



391 



tions in ancient grave mounds have revealed implements of the 
finest pohshed stone, beautiful bronze swords, and coats of 
iron ring mail, besides gold and silver ornaments which may 
have been imported from southern Europe. The ancient 
Scandinavians have left to us curious records of the past in 
their picture writing chiseled on the flat surface of rocks. The 
objects represented include boats with as many as thirty men 
in them, horses drawing two-wheeled carts, spans of oxen, 
farmers engaged in ploughing, and warriors on horseback. 
By the close of the prehistoric period the northern peoples were 
also familiar with a form of the Greek alphabet (the " runes 
and with the art of writing. 

139. The Viking Age 

The Viking Age, with which historic times begin in northern 
Europe, extends from about 800 a.d. to the introduction of 
Christianity in the tenth and eleventh centuries, ^awn of his- 
This was the period when the Northmen, or tory in 
Vikings, realizing that the sea offered the quickest ^^^^"^^^^^ 
road to wealth and conquest, began to make long voyages to 
foreign lands. In part they went as traders and exchanged 
the furs, wool, and fish of Scandinavia for the clothing, orna- 
ments, and other articles of luxury found in neighboring coun- 
tries. But it was no far cry from merchant to freebooter, and, 
in fact, expeditions for the sake of plunder seem to have been 
even more popular with the Northmen than peaceful commerce. 

Whether the Northmen engaged in trade or in warfare, good 
ships and good seamanship were indispensable to them. They 
became the boldest sailors of the early Middle North- 
Ages. No longer hugging the coast, as timid men as 
mariners had always done before them, the North- 
men pushed out into the uncharted main and steered their course 
only by observation of the sun and stars. In this way the 
Northmen were led to make those remarkable explorations in 
the Atlantic Ocean and the polar seas which added so greatly 
to geographical knowledge. 

1 See the illustration, page 240. 



392 The Northmen and the Normans 



It was not uncommon for a Viking chieftain, after his days 
of sea-roving had ended, to be buried in his ship, over which 
Ships of the a grave chamber, covered with earth, would be 
Northmen erected. The discovery of several of these burial 
ships enables us to form a good idea of Viking vessels. The 
largest of them might reach a length of seventy feet and hold as 





A Viking Shiip 

The Gokstad vessel is of oak, twenty-eight feet long and six- 
teen feet broad in the center. It has seats for sixteen pairs of 
rowers, a mast for a single sail, and a rudder on the right or 
starboard side. The gunwale was decorated with a series of 
shields, painted alternately black and gold. This ship, which 
probably dates from about goo a.d., was found on the shore of 
Christiania Fiord. A still larger ship, of about the same date, was 
taken in 1904 a.d. from the grave of a Norwegian queen at Ose- 
berg. With the queen had been buried a four-wheeled wagon, 
three sleighs, three beds, two chests, a chair, a large loom, and va- 
rious kitchen utensils, in fact everything needed for her comfort 
in the other world. 

many as one hundred and twenty men. A fleet of the North- 
men, carrying several thousand warriors, mail-clad and armed 
with spears, swords, and battle-axes, was indeed formidable. 
During this period the Northmen were the masters of the sea, 
as far as western Europe was concerned. This fact largely 
explains their successful campaigns. 

A very important source of information for the Viking Age 
consists of the writings called sagas. ^ These naratives are in 
prose, but they were based, in many instances, 

e sagas songs which the minstrels (skalds) sang to 

appreciative audiences assembled at the banqueting board of a 
Viking chieftain. It was not until the twelfth and thirteenth 



1 The word is derived from old Norse segya, "to say"; compare German sagen. 



The Viking Age 



393 



centuries that the sagas were committed to writing. This 
was done chiefly in Iceland, and so it happens that we must 
look to that distant island for the beginnings of Scandinavian 
hterature. 

The sagas belong to different classes. The oldest of them 
relate the deeds of Viking heroes and their families. Others 
deal with the hves of Norwegian kings. Some of subject 
the most important sagas describe the explora- matter of the 
tions and settlements of the Northmen and hence ^^^^^ 
possess considerable value as historical records. 

The sagas throw much hght on the character of the Northmen. 
Love of adventure and contempt for the quiet joys of home 
comes out in the description of Viking chiefs, j,^^ North- 
who "never sought refuge under a roof nor emptied men as seen 
their drinking-horns by a hearth." An immense ^^^^^ 
love of fighting breathes in the accounts of Viking warriors, 
''who are glad when they have hopes of a battle; they will 
leap up in hot haste and ply the oars, snapping the oar-thongs 
and cracking the tholes." The undaunted spirit of Viking 
sailors, braving the storms of the northern ocean, expresses 
itself in their sea songs: "The force of the tempest assists the 
arms of our oarsmen; the hurricane is our servant, it drives 
us whithersoever we wish to go." The sagas also reveal other 
characteristics of the Northmen: a cruelty and faithlessness 
which made them a terror to their foes; an almost barbaric 
love of gay clothing and ornament; a strong sense of public 
order, giving rise to an elaborate legal system; and even a 
feeling for the romantic beauty of their northern home, with 
its snow-clad mountains, dark forests of pine, sparkling water- 
falls, and deep, blue fiords. 

It is to the Viking Age also that we owe the composition of 
the poems going by the name of the Elder Edda. These poems, 
as well as the prose sagas, were collected and Eddaic 
arranged in Iceland during the later Middle Ages, po^^^s 
The Elder Edda is a storehouse of old Norse mythology. It 
forms our chief source of knowledge concerning Scandinavian 
heathenism before the introduction of Christianity. 



394 The Northmen and the Normans 



140. Scandinavian Heathenism 

The religion of the Northmen bore a close resemblance to 
that of the other Teutonic peoples. The leading deity was 
The god Odin (German Woden), whose exploits are cele- 
brated in many of the songs of the Elder Edda. 
Odin was represented as a tall, gray-bearded chieftain,- carrying 
a shield and a spear which never missed its mark. Though a 
god of battle, Odin was also a lover of wisdom. He discovered 
the runes which gave him secret knowledge of all things. Legend 
told how Odin killed a mighty giant, whose body was cut into 
pieces to form the world: the earth was his flesh, the water 
his blood, the rocks his bones, and the heavens his skull. Having 
created the world and peopled it with human beings, Odin 
retired to the sacred city of Asgard, where he reigned in company 
with his children. 

Enthroned beside Odin sat his oldest son, Thor (German 
Thunor), god of thunder and lightning. His weapon, the 
The god thunderbolt, was imagined as a hammer, and Vv^as 
'^^^^ especially used by him to protect gods and men 

against the giants. The hammer, when thrown, returned to 
his hand of its own accord. Thor also possessed a belt 
of strength, which, when girded about him, doubled his 
power. 

Many stories were told of Thor's adventures, when visiting 
Jotunheim, the abode of the giants. In a drinking-match he 
Thor's deeds tried to drain a horn of liquor, not knowing that 
of strength Qj^g Qf j-j^g horn reached the sea, which was 
appreciably lowered by the god's huge draughts. He sought 
to lift from the ground a large, gray cat, but struggle as he might, 
could raise only one of the animal's feet. What Thor took for 
a cat, however, was really the Midgard serpent, which, with 
its tail in its mouth, encircled the earth. In the last trial of 
strength Thor wrestled with an old woman, and after a vio- 
lent contest was thrown down upon one knee. But the hag 
was in truth relentless old age, who sooner or later lays 
low all men. 



Scandinavian Heathenism 



395 



Most beautiful and best beloved of the Scandinavian divinities 
was Odin's son, Balder. He was represented as a gentle deity 
of innocence and righteousness. As long as he Myth of 
lived, evil could gain no real control in the world balder 
and the power of the gods would remain unshaken. To pre- 
serve Balder from all danger his mother Frigga required every- 
thing on earth to swear never to harm her son. Only a single 
plant, the mistletoe, did not take the oath. Then the traitor 
Loki gathered the mistletoe and came to an assembly where 
the gods were hurling all kinds of missiles at Balder, to show that 
nothing could hurt him. Loki asked the bhnd Hoder to throw 
the plant at Balder. Hoder did so, and Balder fell dead. The 
gods tried to recover him from Hel, the gloomy underworld, 
but Hel demanded as his ransom a tear from every living 
creature. Gods, men, and even things inanimate wept for 
Balder, except one cruel giantess — Loki in disguise — who 
would not give a single tear. She said, "Neither living nor 
dead was Balder of any use to me. Let Hel keep what 
it has." 

Disasters followed Balder's death. An immense fire burned 
up the world and the human race. The giants invaded Asgard 
and slaughtered its inhabitants. Odin fell a "Twilight of 
victim to the mighty wolf Fenris. Thor, having Gods" 
killed the Midgard serpent, was suffocated with the venom 
which the dying monster cast over him. The end of all things 
arrived. This was the catastrophe which had been predicted 
of old — the "Twihght of the Gods." 

Besides the conception of Hel, the Northmen also framed 
the idea of Valhalla,^ the abode to which Odin received the 
souls of those who had died, not ingloriously in y^j^^^^ 
their beds, but on the field of battle. A troop 
of divine maidens, the Valkyries,^ rode through the air on Odin's 
seryice to determine the issue of battles and to select brave 
warriors for Valhalla. There on the broad plains they fought 
with one another by day, but at evening the slayer and the 

1 "Hall of the slain." 

2 " Choosers of the slain." 



Sg6 The Northmen and the Normans 



slain returned to Odin's hall to feast mightily on boar's flesh 
and drink deep draughts of mead. 

As with most heathen religions that of the Northmen was 
full of terrors. Their lively imagination peopled the world 

with many strange figures. Fiends 
Supernatural and monsters inhab- 
beings ited the marshes, 

giants lived in the dark forest, 
evil spirits haunted all solitary 
places, and ghosts stalked over 
the land by night. The use of 
charms and spells to guard against 
such creatures passed over into 
Christian times. Their memory 
also survives in folk tales, which 
are full of allusions to giants, 
dwarfs, goblins, and other super- 
natural beings. 

Christianity first gained a foot- 
hold in Denmark through the work 
of Roman Catholic missionaries 
sent out by Charle- 
magne's son, Louis 
the Pious.^ Two cen- 
turies elapsed before the Danes 
were completely converted. From 
Denmark the new faith spread to 
Sweden. Norway owed its con- 
version largely to the crusading 
work of King Olaf (1016-1029 
A.D.), whose zeal for Christianity 
won him the title of Olaf the Saint. The Norwegians carried 
Christianity to Iceland, where it supplanted the old heathenism 
in the year 1000 a.d. With the general adoption of the 
Christian religion in Scandinavian lands, the Viking Age 
drew to an end. 

1 See page 312. 




Christianiza- 
tion of the 
Northmen 



Norse Metal Work 

Museum, Copenhagen 

A door from a church in Iceland; 
date, tenth or eleventh century. The 
iron knob is inlaid with silver. The 
slaying of a dragon is represented above 
and below is shown the Midgard ser- 
pent. 



The Northmen in the West 



397 



141. The Northmen m the West 

The Northmen were still heathen when they set forth on their 
expeditions of plunder and conquest. Doubtless the principal 
cause of this Viking movement is to be sought in causes of 
the same hunger for land which prompted the the Viking 
Germanic invasions and, in fact, has led to colonial 
expansion in all ages. By the ninth century Scandinavia could 
no longer support its rapidly growing population, and enforced 
emigration was the natural consequence. The political con- 
dition of Scandinavia at this time also helps to explain the 
Viking expansion. Denmark and Norway had now become 
strong kingdoms, whose rulers forced all who would not sub- 
mit to their sway to leave the country. Thus it resulted 
that the numbers of the emigrants were swelled by exiles, 
outlaws, and other adventurers who turned to the sea in 
hope of gain. 

The Northmen started out as pirates and fell on the coasts 
of England, France, and Germany. In their shallow boats 
they also found it easy to ascend the rivers and Raids of the 
reach places lying far inland. The Northmen Northmen 
directed their attacks especially against the churches and 
monasteries, which were full of treasure and less easily defended 
than fortified towns. Their raids inspired such great terror 
that a special prayer was inserted in the church services: 
''From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us." 

At first the incursions of the Northmen took place only in 
summer, but before long they began to winter in the lands which 
they visited. Year by year their fleets became ^j^^ North- 
larger, and their attacks changed from mere forays men in 
of pirates to well-organized expeditions of conquest saltlan'd 
and colonization. Early in the ninth century and the 
we find them making permanent settlements in ^^^^^^ 
Ireland, and for a time bringing a considerable part of that 
country under their control. The first cities on Irish soil, 
including Dubhn and Limerick, were founded by the Northmen. 
Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came those 



398 The Northmen and the Normans 



on the western coast of Scotland. In the course of their 
westward expeditions the Northmen had already discovered 
the Faroe Islands, the Orkneys, the Shetlands and the Hebrides. 
These barren and inhospitable islands received large numbers 
of Norse immigrants and long remained under Scandinavian 
control. 




Discoveries of the Northmen in the West 



The Northmen soon discovered Iceland, where Irish monks 
had previously settled. Colonization began in 874 a.d.^ One 
The North- most valuable of the sagas — the "Book of 

men in the Land- taking" — describes the emigration to 

Iceland island and enumerates the Viking chiefs who 

took part in the movement. Iceland soon became almost a 
second Norway in language, hterature, and customs. It 
remains to-day an outpost of Scandinavian civilization. 

The first settlement of Greenland was the work of an Ice- 

1 The Icelanders in 1874 a.d. celebrated the thousandth anniversary of the 
Scandinavian settlement of their island. 



The Northmen in the West 



399 



lander, Eric the Red, who reached the island toward the end 
of the tenth century. He called the country ^j^^ North- 
Greenland, not because it was green, but because, men in 
as he said, "there is nothing like a good name to ^^^^^^^^ 
attract settlers." Intercourse between Greenland and Iceland 
was often dangerous, and at times was entirely interrupted by 
ice. Leif Ericsson, the son of Eric the Red, established a new 
route of commerce and travel by sailing from Greenland to 
Norway by way of the Hebrides. This was the first voyage 
made directly across the Atlantic. Norway and Greenland 
continued to enjoy a flourishing trade for several centuries. 
After the connection with Norway had been severed, the Green- 
landers joined the Eskimos and mingled with that primitive 
people. 

Two of the sagas give accounts of a voyage which Leif Erics- 
son about looo A.D. made to regions lying southward from 
Greenland. In the sagas they are called Hellu- r^^^ North- 
land (stone-land), Markland (wood-land), and men in 
Vinland. Just what part of the coast of North ^^"^^ 
America these countries occupied is an unsolved problem. Leif 
Ericsson and the Greenlanders who followed him seem to have 
reached at least the shores of Labrador, Newfoundland, and 
Nova Scotia. They may have gone even farther southward, 
for the sagas describe regions where the climate was mild enough 
for wild vines and wild wheat to grow. The Northmen, how- 
ever, did not follow up their explorations by lasting settlements. 
Before long all memory of the far western lands faded from the 
minds of men. The curtain fell on the New World, not again 
to rise until the time of Columbus and Cabot. 

142. The Northmen in the East 

In the Viking movement westward across the Atlantic the 
Norwegians took the leading part. They also sailed far north- 
ward, rounding the North Cape and reaching the Arctic ex- 
mouth of the Dwina River in the White Sea. of°the°North- 
Viking sailors, therefore, have the credit for under- men 
taking the first voyages of exploration into the Arctic. 



400 The Northmen and the Normans 



The Swedes, on account of their geographical position, 
were naturally the most active in expeditions to eastern lands. 
The North- ^ ^^^Y ^^^^Y ^^^^ ^^^V crossed the Gulf of 

men in Bothnia and paid frequent visits to Finland. Its 

rude inhabitants, the Finns, were related in lan- 
guage, and doubtless in blood also, to the Huns, Magyars, and 
other Asiatic peoples. Sweden ruled Finland throughout the 
Middle Ages. Russia obtained control of the country during 
the eighteenth century, but Swedish influence has made it 
largely Scandinavian in civilization. 

The activities of the Swedes also led them to establish settle- 
ments on the southern shore of the Baltic and far inland along 
The North- waterways leading into Russia. An old 

men in Russian chronicler declares that in 862 a.d. the 

Russia Slavs sent an embassy to the Swedes, whom they 

called "Rus," saying, ''Our country is large and rich, but there 
is no order in it; come and rule over us." The Swedes were not 
slow to accept the invitation. Their leader, Ruric, established 
a dynasty which reigned in Russia for more than seven hundred 
years. 1 

The first Russian state centered in the city of Novgorod, 
near Lake Ilmen, where Ruric built a strong for tress. ^ Nov- 
Novgorod gorod during the Middle Ages was an important 
and Kiev station on the trade route between Constantinople 
and the Baltic. Some of Ruric's followers, passing southward 
along the Dnieper River, took possession of the small town of 
Kiev. It subsequently became the capital of the Scandinavian 
possessions in Russia. 

The Northmen in Russia maintained close intercourse with 
their mother country for about two centuries. During this 
Scandinavian P^i"iod they did much to open up northeastern 
influence in Europe to the forces of civilization and progress. 
Russia Colonies were founded, cities were built, commerce 

was fostered, and a stable government was established. Russia 

1 Russia in 1862 a.d. celebrated the millenary of her foundation by Ruric. 

2 The Norse word for "fort" is preserved in the gorod of Novgorod. 



The Northmen in the East 



401 



under the sway of the Northmen became for the first time a 

truly European state. 

Having penetrated the wilds of Russia, it was comparatively 

easy for the Northmen to sail down the Russian rivers to the 

Black Sea and thence to Constantinople. Some The North- 

of them went as raiders and several times devas- men and 

• 1 1 1 1 r ^ -1 -1 Roman 

tated the neighborhood of Constantinople, until Empire in 

bought off by the payment of tribute.^ Many ^^s* 

Northmen also joined the bodyguard of the eastern emperor 

and saw service under his standard in different parts of the 

Mediterranean. 

During the reign of Vladimir, a descendant of Ruric, the 
Christian religion gained its first foothold in Russia. We are 
told that Vladimir, having made up his mind to Christianity 
embrace a new faith, sent commissioners to Rome in Russia, 

988 A D 

and Constantinople, and also to the adherents 
of Islam and Judaism. His envoys reported in favor of the 
Greek Church, for their barbarian imagination had been so 
impressed by the majesty of the ceremonies performed in 
Sancta Sophia that ''they did not know whether they were on 
earth or in heaven." Vladimir accepted their report, ordered 
the idols of Kiev to be thrown into the Dnieper, and had him- 
self and his people baptized according to the rites of the 
Greek Church. At the same time he married a sister of the 
reigning emperor at Constantinople. 

Vladimir's decision to adopt the Greek form of Christianity 
is justly regarded as one of the formative influences in Russian 

history. It meant that the Slavs were to come ^ 

T- • n r - ^ Importance 

under the religious influence of Constantinople, of the con- 
instead of under that of Rome. Furthermore, version of 

Russia 

it meant that Byzantine civilization, then in- 
comparably superior to the rude culture of the western 
peoples, would henceforth gain an entrance into Russia. 
The country profited by this rich civihzation and during 
the early part of the Middle Ages took a foremost place 
in Europe. 

1 See page 335, 



402 The Northmen and the Normans 



143. Normandy and the Normans 

No part of western Europe suffered more severely from the 
Northmen than France. They first appeared on the French 
Charlemagne ^oast toward the end of Charlemagne's reign. A 
and the well-known legend relates that the emperor, from 
the window of his palace, once saw the dark 
sails of the Vikings and wept at the thought of the misery 
which these daring pirates would some day inflict upon 
his realm. 

After Charlemagne's death the wars of his grandsons left 
the empire defenseless, and the Northmen in consequence 
The North- redoubled their attacks. They sailed far up the 
men in Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne to plunder and 

France murder. Paris, then a small but important city, 

lay in the path of the invaders and more than once suffered at 
their hands. The destruction by the Northmen of many 
monasteries was a loss to civilization, for the monastic estab- 
lishments at this time were the chief centers of learning and 
culture.^ 

The heavy hand of the Northmen also descended on Germany. 
The rivers Scheldt, INIeuse, Rhine, and Elbe enabled them to 
The North- proceed at will into the heart of the country, 
men in Liege, Cologne, Strassburg, Hamburg, and other 

Germany great Frankish cities fell before them. Viking 
raiders even plundered Aachen and stabled their horses in the 
church which Charlemagne had built there. ^ Thus the ancient 
homeland of the Franks was laid completely waste. 

The history of the Northmen in France began in gii a.d., 

„ , , when the Carolingian king granted to a Viking 
RoUo and , . , . ^ „ f . . ^ . , 

the grant of chieftam, RoUo, dommion over the region about 

Normandy, lower Seine. RoUo on his part agreed to 

911 A.D. 

accept Christianity and to acknowledge the French 
ruler as his lord. It is said, however, that he would not kneel 
and kiss the king's foot as a mark of homage, and that the 
follower who performed the unwelcome duty did it so awk- 

1 See page 358. 2 See the illustration, page 310. 



Normandy and the Normans 



wardly as to overturn the king, to the great amusement of the 
assembled Northmen. The story illustrates the Viking sense 
of independence. 

The district ceded to RoUo developed into what in later 
times was known as the duchy of Normandy. Its Scandinavian 
settlers, henceforth called Normans,^ soon became Duchy of 
French in language and culture. It was amazing Normandy 
to see how quickly the descendants of wild sea-rovers put off 
their heathen ways and made their new home a Christian land, 
noted for its churches, monasteries, and schools. Normandy 
remained practically independent till the beginning of the 
thirteenth century, when a French king added it to his 
possessions.^ 

The Normans helped to found the medieval French monarchy. 

During the tenth century the old Carolingian line of rulers, 

which had already died out in Germany and Italy, ^ 

came also to an end in France. A new dynasty mans and 

was then founded by a nobleman named Hugh Hugh Capet, 
. 987 A.D. 

Capet, who secured the aid of the powerful Norman 

dukes in his efforts to gain the throne. The accession of Hugh 
Capet took place in 987 a.d. His descendants reigned over 
France for almost exactly eight hundred years.^ 

144. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred 
the Great 

Even before Egbert of Wessex succeeded in uniting all the 
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms,^ bands of Vikings, chiefly from Den- 
mark, had made occasional forays on the English England 
coast. Egbert kept the Danes at bay, but he died overrun by 
in 839 A.D., and from that time the real invasion Danes 
of England began. The Danes came over in large numbers, 

1 "Norman" is a softened form of "Northman." 

2 In 191 1 A.D. Normandy celebrated in the ancient capital of Rouen the thou- 
sandth anniversary of its existence. 

3 See pages 315, 317. 

4 The abolition of the French monarchy dates from 1792 a.d., when Louis XVI 
was deposed from the throne. 

6 See page 320. 



404 



The Northmen and the Normans 




Alfred the Great 

A lofty, bronze statue by H. Thor- 
neycraft set up at Winchester, Alfred's 
ancient capital. It was dedicated in 
igoi A.D. on the thousandth anniver- 
sary of his death. The inscription 
reads: 

"Alfred found learning dead, 

And he restored it; 
Education neglected. 

And he revived it; 
The laws powerless, 

And he gave them force; 
The Church debased, 

And he raised it; 
The land ravaged by a fear- 
ful enemy, 
From which he delivered it." 



made permanent settlements, and 
soon controlled all England north 
of the Thames. 

Wessex before long experienced 
the full force of the Danish attack. 
The country at this time was 
King Alfred ^^^^d by Alfred, the 
and the grandson of Egbert. 
Danes ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 

throne in 871 a.d., when he was 
only about twenty-three years old. 
In spite of his youth, he showed 
himself the right sort of leader 
for the hard-pressed West Saxons. 
For several years fortune favored 
the Danes. Then the tide turned. 
Issuing from the marshes of Som- 
ersetshire, where he had rallied 
his dispirited troops, Alfred sud- 
denly fell on the enemy and 
gained a signal success. The 
beaten Danes agreed to make 
peace and to accept the religion 
of their conquerors. 

Alfred's victory did not end 
the war. Indeed, almost to the 
end of his reign, the heroic king 
had to face the Vik- 
ings, but he always 
drove them off and even recovered 
some of the territory north of the 
Thames. The Enghsh and Danes 
finally agreed to a treaty dividing 
the country between them. The 
eastern part of England, where 
the invaders were firmly estab- 
lished, came to be called the Dane- 



The Danelaw 



4o6 The Northmen and the Normans 




Civilizing 
activities of 
Alfred 



law, because here the Danish, and not the Anglo-Saxon, law 
prevailed. In the Danelaw the Danes have left memorials 
of themselves in local names ^ and in the bold, adventurous 
character of the inhabitants. 

It was a well-nigh ruined country which Alfred had now to 
rule over and build up again. His work of restoration invites 
comparison with that of Charlemagne. 

Alfred's first care was to 
organize a fighting force 
always ready at his call 
to repel invasion. He also created an 
efficient fleet, which patrolled the 
coast and engaged the Vikings on 
their own element. He had the laws 
of the Anglo-Saxons collected and re- 
duced to writing, taking pains at the 
same time to see that justice was 
done between man and man. He did 
much to rebuild the ruined churches 
and monasteries. AKred labored with 
especial diligence to revive education 
among the English folk. His court 
at Winchester became a literary 
center where learned men wrote and 
taught. The king himself mastered 
Latin, in order that he might translate Latin books into 
the English tongue. So great were Alfred's services in this 
direction that he has been called "the father of English 
prose." 

Alfred alone of Enghsh rulers bears the title of ''the Great." 
He well deserves it, not only for what he did but for what he 
Alfred's was. Through the mists of ten centuries his 
character figure still looms large. It is the figure of a brave, 
patient, and modest man, who wore himself out in the service 
of his people. The oft-quoted words which he added to one of 

1 The east of England contains more than six hundred names of towns ending 
in ly (Danish "town"); compare by-law, originally a law for a special town. 



Alfred's Jewel 

Ashmolean Museum, Oxford 

A jewel of blue enamel inclosed 
in a setting of gold, with the 
words around it " Alfred had me 
wrought." Found at Athelney in 
the seventeenth century. 



Conquest of England by the Danes 407 



his translations form a fitting epitaph to this noble king: "My 

wish was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life 

to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good 

works." His wish has been fulfilled. 

About seventy-five years after Alfred's death the Danes 

renewed their invasions. It then became necessary to buy 

them off with an annual tribute called the Dane- From Alfred 

geld. Early in the eleventh century Canute, the *® 

. . . . man Con- 

son of a Danish king, succeeded in establishing quest, 901- 

himseh on the -English throne (1016-1035 A.D.). ^^^^ 

His dynasty did not last long, however, and at length the old 

West-Saxon fine was restored in the person of Edward the 

Confessor (or "the Saint"). Edward had spent most of his 

early life in Normandy, and on coming to England brought 

with him a large following of Normans, whom he placed in 

high positions. During his reign (1042-1066 a.d.) Norman 

nobles and churchmen gained a foothold in England, thus 

preparing the way for the Norman conquest of the country. 

• 145. Norman Conquest of England; William 
the Conqueror 

Edward the Confessor having left no direct heirs, the choice 
of his successor fell lawfully upon the Witenagemot,^ as the 
national assembly of noblemen and higher clergy Harold and 
was called. This body chose as king, Harold, "William 
earl of Wessex, the leading man in England. Harold's right 
to the succession was disputed by William, duke of Normandy, 
who declared that the crown had been promised to him by his 
cousin, the Confessor. William also asserted that Harold had 
once sworn a solemn oath, over a chest of sacred relics, to sup- 
port his claim to the throne on Edward's death. When word 
came of Harold's election, William wrathfuUy denounced him 
as a usurper and began to prepare a fleet and an army for the 
invasion of England. 



1 "Meeting of wise men." The word gemot ov moot was used for any kind of 
formal meeting. 



4o8 



The Northmen and the Normans 



Normandy under Duke William had become a powerful, 
well-organized state. Norman knights, attracted by promises 
William's of wide lands and rich booty, if they should con- 
preparations quer, formed the core of William's forces. Adven- 
turers from every part of France, and even from Spain and 
Italy, also entered his service. The pope blessed the enter- 
prise and sent to William a ring containing a hair from St. 
Peter's head and a consecrated banner. When all was ready 
in the late fall of 1066 a.d., a large fleet, bearing five or six 
thousand archers, foot soldiers, and horsemen, crossed the Chan- 
nel and landed in England. 




A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry 

Museum of Bayeux, Normandy 

The Bayeux Tapestry, which almost certainly belongs to the time of the Norman Con- 
quest, is a strip of coarse linen cloth, about 230 feet long by 20 inches wide, embroidered in 
worsted thread of eight different colors. There are seventy-two scenes picturing various 
events in the history of the Norman Conquest. The illustration given above represents an 
attack of Norman cavalry on the English shield wall at the battle of Hastings. 

William at first met no resistance. Harold was far away in 
the north fighting against the Norwegians, who had seized the 
Battle of opportunity to make another descent on the English 
Hastings, coast. Harold defeated them decisively and then 
1066 A.D. hurried southward to face his new foe. The two 
armies met near Hastings on the road to London. All day they 
fought. The stout English infantry, behind their wall of shields, 
threw back one charge after another of the Norman knights. 
Again and again the duke raUied his men and led them where 
the foe was thickest. A cry arose that he was slain. 'T Uve," 



Norman Conquest of England 



409 




The Northmen and the Normans 



shouted William, tearing off his helmet that all might see his 
face, ''and by God's help will conquer yet." At last, with the 
approach of evening, Harold was killed by an arrow; his 
household guard died about him; and the rest of the Enghsh 
took to flight. William pitched his camp on the field of victory, 
and "sat down to eat and drink among the dead." 

The battle of Hastings settled the fate of England. Fol- 
lowing up his victory with relentless energy, William pressed 
William be- on to London. That city, now practically the 
comes kmg capital of the country, opened its gates to him. 
The Witenagemot, meeting in London offered the throne to 
William. On Christmas Day, 1066 a.d., in Westminster Ab- 
bey the duke of Normandy was crowned king of England. 

What manner of man was William the Conqueror? Tall of 
stature, endowed with tremendous strength, and brave even 
William's to desperation, he seemed an embodiment of the 
personality qJ^j Viking spirit. ''No knight under heaven," 
men said truly, "was William's peer." A savage temper and a 
harsh, forbidding countenance made him a terror even to his 
closest followers. "So stern and wrathful was he," wrote an 
Enghsh chronicler, "that none durst do anything against his 
will." Though William never shrank from force or fraud, 
from bloodshed or oppression, to carry out his ends, he yet 
showed himself throughout his reign a patron of learning, a 
sincere supporter of the Church, and a statesman of remarkable 
insight. He has left a lasting impress on English history. 

146. Results of the Norman Conquest 

, The coming of the Normans to England formed the third 
^ and last installment of the Teutonic invasion, 
ment in the Norman merchants and artisans followed Norman 
English soldiers and settled particularly in the southern 

and eastern parts of the island. They seem to 
have emigrated in considerable numbers and doubtless added 
an important element to the Enghsh population. The Nor- 
mans thus completed the work of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes 
in making England a Teutonic country. 



Results of the Norman Conquest 411 



It must be remembered, however, that the Normans in 

Normandy had received a considerable intermixture of French 

blood and had learned to speak a form of the French „ 

Norman ele- 

language (Norman-French) . In England Norman- ment in the 
French naturally was used by the upper and ruling ^^^^g^ 
classes — by the court, the nobility, and the 
clergy. The English held fast to their own homely language, 
but could not fail to pick up many French expressions, as they 
mingled with their conquerors in churches, markets, and other 
places of public resort. It took about three hundred years for 
French words and phrases to soak thoroughly into their speech. 
The result was a very large addition to the vocabulary of 
English.^ 

Until the Norman Conquest England, because of its insular 
position, had remained out of touch with Continental Europe. 
William the Conqueror and his immediate sue- xjnion of 
cessors were, however, not only rulers of England, England and 
but also dukes of Normandy and subjects of the 
French kings. Hence the union of England with Normandy 
brought it at once into the full current of European affairs. 
The country became for a time almost a part of France and 
profited by the more advanced civilization which had arisen 
on French soil. The nobility, the higher clergy, and the officers 
of government were Normans. The architects of the castles 
and churches, the lawyers, and the men of letters came from 
Normandy. Even the commercial and industrial classes were 
largely recruited from across the Channel. 

The Norman Conquest much increased the pope's authority 
over England. The English Church, as has been shown,^ 
was the child of Rome, but during the Anglo- England 
Saxon period it had become more independent and the 
of the Papacy than the churches on the Con- -^^p^^^ 
tinent. William the Conqueror, whose invasion of Eng- 
land took place with the pope's approval, repaid his 
obligation by bringing the country into closer dependence 
on the Roman pontiff. 

1 See page 556. 2 See page 325. 



412 The Northmen and the Normans 



Although the Normans settled in England as conquerors, 
yet after all they were near kinsmen of the English and did not 
Fusion of ^^^S heep separate from them. In Normandy a 
English and century and a half had been enough to turn the 
Northmen into Frenchmen. So in England, at 
the end of a like period, the Normans became EngHshmen. 
Some of the quahties that have helped to make the modern 
English a great people — their love of the sea and fondness for 
adventure, their vigor, self-reliance, and unconquerable spirit — 
are doubtless derived in good part from the Normans. 

147. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily 

The conquest of England, judged by its results, proved to 
be the most important undertaking of the Normans. But 
Norman during this same eleventh century they found 
expansion another field in which to display their energy 
southward daring. They turned southward to the 

Mediterranean and created a Norman state in Italy and 
Sicily. 

The unsettled condition of Italy ^ gave the Normans an 
opportunity for interference in the affairs of the country. The 
Conquests founding of Norman power there was largely the 
of Robert work of a noble named Robert Guiscard (''the 
Crafty"), a man almost as celebrated as William 
the Conqueror. He had set out from his home in Normandy 
with only a single follower, but his valor and shrewdness soon 
brought him to the front. Robert united the scattered bands 
of Normans in Italy, who were fighting for pay or plunder, 
and wrested from the Roman Empire in the East its last ter- 
ritories in the peninsula. Before his death (1085 a.d.) most 
of southern Italy had passed under Norman rule. 

Robert's brother, Roger, crossed the strait of Messina and 
Roger began the subjugation of Sicily, then a Moslem 

Guiscard's possession. Its recovery from the hands of ''infi- 
conquests dels" was Considered by the Normans a work 
both pleasing to God and profitable to themselves. By the 

1 See page 317. 



Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily 413 



close of the eleventh century they had finally established their 
rule in the island. 

The conquests of the Normans in southern Italy and Sicily 
were united into a single state, which came to be known as 
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Normans kingdom 
governed it for only about one hundred and fifty of the 
years, but under other rulers it lasted until the "^^^ SicUies 
middle of the nineteenth century, when the present kingdom of 
Italy came into existence. 

The kingdom of the Two Sicilies was well-governed, rich, 
and strong. Art and learning flourished in the cities of Naples, 
Salerno, and Palermo. Southern Italy and Sicily Gorman 
under the Normans became a meeting-point of culture in 
Byzantine and Arabic civihzation. The Norman South 
kingdom formed an important channel through which the 
wisdom of the East flowed to the North and to the West. 

148. The Normans in European History 

The conquests of the Normans in England, Italy, and Sicily 
were effected after they had become a Christian and a French- 
speaking people. In these lands they were the j^oj-man 
armed missionaries of a civilization not their faculty of 
own. The Normans, indeed, invented little and 
borrowed much. But, like the Arabs, they were more than 
simple imitators. In language, literature, art, religion, and 
law what they took from others they improved and then spread 
abroad throughout their settlements. 

It seems at first sight remarkable that a people who occu- 
pied so much of western Europe should have passed away. 
Normans as Normans no longer exist. They Assimilation 
lost themselves in the kingdoms which they of the 
founded and among the peoples whom they sub- •^^^^^^ 
dued. Their rapid assimilation was chiefly the consequence 
of their small numbers: outside of Normandy they were too 
few long to maintain their identity. 

If the Normans themselves soon disappeared, their influence 
was more lasting. Their mission, it has been well said, was 



414 The Northmen and the Normans 



to be leaders and energizers of society — "the little leaven 
Norman that leaveneth the whole lump." The peoples of 
influence medieval Europe owed much to the courage and 
martial spirit, the genius for government, and the reverence 
for law, of the Normans. In one of the most significant move- 
ments of the Middle Ages — the crusades — they took a prom- 
inent part. Hence we shall meet them again. 

Studies 

I. What events are associated with the following dates: 988 A.D.; 862 a.d.; 
1066 A.D.; 1000 A.D.; and 987 a.d.? 2. What was the origin of the geographical 
names Russia, Greenland, Finland, and Normandy? 3. Mention some of the 
striking physical contrasts between the Arabian and Scandinavian peninsulas. 
4. Why has the Baltic Sea been called a "secondary Mediterranean"? 5. How 
does it happen that the gulf of Finland is often frozen over in winter, while 
even the northernmost of the Norse fiords remain open? 6. Why is an acquaint- 
ance with Scandinavian mythology, literature, and history especially desirable 
for Enghsh-speaking peoples? 7. What is meant by the "berserker's rage"? 
8. What names of our weekdays are derived from the names of Scandinavian 
deities? 9. Compare the Arab and Scandinavian conceptions of the future state 
of departed warriors. 10. What is meant by "sea-power"? What people possessed 
it during the ninth and tenth centuries? 1 1 . Compare the invasions of the North- 
men with those of the Germans as to (a) causes, (b) area covered, and (c) results. 
12. What was the significance of the fact that the Northmen were not Christians 
at the time when they began their expeditions? 13. Show how the voyages of the 
Northmen vastly increased geographical knowledge. 14. Show that the Russian 
people have received from Constantinople their writing, religion, and art. 15. 
Mention three conquests of England by foreign peoples before 1066 a.d. Give for 
each conquest the results and the approximate date. 16. On the map, page 405, 
trace the boundary line between Alfred's possessions and those of the Danes. 17. 
Compare Alfred and Charlemagne as civilizing kings. 18. Compare Alfred's 
cession of the Danelaw with the cession of Normandy to RoUo. 19. Why is Hast- 
ings included among "decisive" battles? 20. "We EngHsh are not ourselves but 
somebody else." Comment on this statement. 21. What is meant by the "Nor- 
man graft upon the sturdy Saxon tree"? 22. What settlements of the Northmen 
most influenced European history? 23. Compare the Norman faculty of adapta- 
tion with that of the Arabs. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
FEUDALISM 



149. Rise of Feudalism 

The ninth century in western Europe was, as we have learned,^ 
a period of \dolence, disorder, and even anarchy. Charlemagne 
for a time had arrested the disintegration of society 
which resulted from the invasions of the Germans, 
and had united their warring tribes under something like a cen- 
tralized government. But his work, it has been well said, was 
only a desperate rally in the midst of confusion. After his death 
the CaroUngian Empire, attacked by the Northmen and other 
invaders and weakened by civil conflicts, broke up into separate 
kingdoms. 

Charlemagne's successors in France, Germany, and Italy 
enjoyed Httle real authority. They reigned, but did not rule. 
Under the conditions of the age, it was impossible decline of 
for a king to govern mth a strong hand. The the royal 
absence of good roads or of other easy means of 
communication made it difficult for him to move troops quickly 
from one district to another, in order to quell revolts. Even 
had good roads existed, the lack of ready money would have 
prevented him from maintaining a strong army devoted to his 
interests. Moreover, the king's subjects, as yet not welded 
into a nation, felt toward him no sentiments of loyalty and 
affection. They cared far less for their king, of whom they 
kifew little, than for their own local lords who dwelt near 
them. 

The dechne of the royal authority, from the ninth century 
onward, meant that the chief functions of govern- increased 
ment would be more and more performed by the power of the 
nobles, who were the great landowners of the king- 
dom. Under Charlemagne these men had been the king's offi- 

1 See page 312. 
415 



41 6 Feudalism 

cials, appointed by him and holding office at his pleasure. 
Under his successors they tended to become almost independent 
princes. In proportion as this change was accomplished during 
the Middle Ages, European society entered upon the stage of 
feudalism.^ 

Feudalism in medieval Europe was not a unique develop- 
ment. Parallels to it may be found in other parts of the world. 
Parallels to Whenever the state becomes incapable of protect- 
European ing life and property, powerful men in each locality 
feudalism ^^^^ themselves undertake this duty; they will 
assume the burden of their own defense and of those weaker 
men who seek their aid. Such was the situation in ancient 
Egypt for several hundred years, in medieval Persia, and in 
modern Japan until about two generations ago. 

European feudalism arose and flourished in the three coun- 
tries which had formed the Carolingian Empire, that is, in 
Extent of France, Germany, and northern Italy. It also 
European spread to Bohemia, Hungary, and the Christian 
feudalism states of Spain. Toward the close of the eleventh 
century the Normans transplanted it into England, southern 
Italy, and Sicily. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 
the crusaders introduced it into the kingdoms which they 
founded in the East.^ Still later, in the fourteenth century, 
the Scandinavian countries became acquainted with feudahsm. 
Throughout this wide area the institution, though varying end- 
lessly in details, presented certain common features. 



150. Feudalism as a System of Local Government 

« 

The basis of feudal society was usually the landed estate. 
Here lived the feudal noble, surrounded by dependents over 
Feudal whom he exercised the rights of a petty sovereign, 

sovereignty jjg ^ould tax them; he could require them to give 
him military assistance; he could try them in his courts. A 

1 The word has nothing to do with "feuds," though these were common enough 
in feudal times. It comes from the medieval La.tmf eudum, from which are derived 
the French fief and the English fee. 

2 See pages 472, 478. 



Feudalism as a System of Local Government 417 



great noble, the possessor of many estates, even enjoyed 
the privilege of declaring war, making treaties, and coining 
money. How, it will be asked, did these rights and privileges 
arise? 

Owing to the decay of commerce and industry, land had be- 
come practically the only form of wealth in the early Middle 
Ages. The king, who in theory was absolute ^^^^^1 
owner of the soil, would pay his officials for their tenure of 
services by giving them the use of a certain amount 
of land. In the same way one who had received large estates 
would parcel them out among his followers, in return for their 
support. Sometimes an unscrupulous noble might seize the 
lands of his neighbors and compel them ^o become his tenants. 
Sometimes, too, those who owned land in their own right might 
surrender the title to it in favor of a noble, who then became 
their protector. 

An estate in land which a person held of a superior lord, 

on condition of performing some ''honorable" service, was 

called a fief. At first the tenant received the fief ^, ^ , 

The fief 

only for a specified term of years or for his life- 
time; but in the end it became inheritable. On the death 
of the tenant his eldest son succeeded him in possession. 
This right of the first-born son to the whole of the father's 
estate was known as primogeniture.^ If a man had no legal 
heir, the fief went back to its lord. 

The tie which bound the tenant who accepted a fief to the 
lord who granted it was called vassalage. Every holder of 
land was the vassal of some lord. At the apex of 

Vassalage 

the feudal pyramid stood the king, the supreme 
landlord, who was supposed to hold his land from God; below 
the king stood the greater lords (dukes, marquises, counts, and 
barons), with large estates; and below them stood the lesser 
lords, or knights, whose possessions were too small for further 
subdivision. 



1 The practice of primogeniture has now been abolished by the laws of the 
various European countries and is not recognized in the United States. It still 
prevails, however, in England. 



Feudalism 



The vassal, first of all, owed various services to the lord. In 
time of war he did garrison duty at the lord's castle and joined 
Personal mihtary expeditions. In time of peace 

services of the vassal attended the lord on ceremonial occa- 
sions, gave him the benefit of his advice, when 
required, and helped him as a judge in trying cases. 

Under certain circumstances the vassal was also compelled to 
make money payments. When a new heir succeeded to the 
The vassal's ^^^^ received from him a sum usually 

money equivalent to one year's revenue of the estate, 

payments ^j^.^ payment was called a ''relief." Again, if a 
man sold his fief, the lord demanded another large sum from the 
purchaser, before giving his consent to the transaction. Vassals 
were also expected to raise money for the lord's ransom, in case 
he was made prisoner of war, to meet the expenses connected 
with the knighting of his eldest son, and to provide a dowry for 
his eldest daughter. Such exceptional payments went by the 
name of "aids." 

The vassal, in return for his services and payments, looked to 
the lord for the protection of life and property. The lord agreed 
The lord's secure him in the enjoyment of his fief, to guard 

duty to the him against his enemies, and to see that in all 
vassal matters he received just treatment. .This was no 

slight undertaking. 

The ceremony of homage ^ symbolized the whole feudal rela- 
tionship. One who proposed to become a vassal and hold a 

_ fief came into the lord's presence, bareheaded 

Homage 

and unarmed, knelt down, placed his hands between 
those of the lord, and promised henceforth to become his "man." 
The lord then kissed him and raised him to his feet. After the 
ceremony the vassal placed his hand upon the Bible or upon 
sacred relics and swore to remain faithful to his lord. This 
was the oath of ''fealty." The lord then gave the vassal 
some object — a stick, a clod of earth, a lance, or a glove — 
in token of the fief with the possession of which he was now 
"invested." 

1 Latin homo, "man." 



Feudal Justice 



419 



It is clear that the feudal method of land tenure, coupled 

with the custom of vassalage, made in some degree for security 

and order. Each noble was attached to the lord „ , , 

Feudal 

above him by the bond of personal service and the government a 
oath of fideUty. To his vassals beneath him he substitute for 

1 r 1 r • 1 anarchy 

was at once protector, benefactor, and friend. 

Unfortunately, feudal obhgations were far less strictly observed 
in practice than in theory. Both lords and vassals often broke 
their engagements, when it seemed profitable to do so. Hence 
they had many quarrels and indulged in constant warfare. 
But feudahsm, despite its defects, was better than anarchy. 
The feudal lords drove back the pirates and hanged the brigands 
and enforced the laws, as no feeble king could do. They pro- 
vided a rude form of local government for a rude society. 

151. Feudal Justice 

Feudahsm was not only a system of local government; it 
was also a system of local justice. Knights, barons, counts, 
and dukes had their separate courts, and the king Feudalism as 
had his court above aU. Cases arising on the a system of 
lord's estate were tried before him and the vassals justice 
whom he called to his assistance in giving justice. Since most 
wrongs could be atoned for by the payment of a fine, the con- 
duct of justice on a large fief produced a considerable income. 
The nobles, accordingly, regarded their judicial rights as a 
valuable property, which they were loath to surrender to the 
state. 

The law followed in a feudal court was largely based on old 
Germanic customs. The court did not act in the pubhc interest, 
as with us, but waited until the plaintiS requested judicial ad- 
its service. Moreover, until the case had been miiiistration 
decided, the accuser and the accused received the same treat- 
ment. Both were imprisoned; and the plaintiff who lost his 
case suffered the same penalty which the defendant, had he 
been found guilty, would have undergone. 

Unlike a modern court, again, the feudal court did not require 
the accuser to prove his case by caUing witnesses and having 



420 



Feudalism 



them give testimony. The burden of proof lay on the accused, 
The oath ^^^^^ himself of the charge, if he 

could do so. In one form of trial it was enough 
for him to declare his innocence under oath, and then to bring 
in several ''oath-helpers," sometimes relatives, but more often 
neighbors, who swore that they beheved him to be telling the 
truth. The number of these ''oath-helpers" varied according 
to the seriousness of the crime and the rank of the accused. 
This method was hardly as unsatisfactory as it seems to be, for 
a person of evil reputation might not be able to secure the 
required number of friends who would commit perjury on his 
behalf. To take an oath was a very solemn proceeding; it 
was an appeal to God, by which a man called down on himself 
divine punishment if he swore falsely. 

The consequences of a false oath were not apparent at once. 
Ordeals, however, formed a method of appealing to God, the 
Ordeals results of which could be immediately observed. 

A common form of ordeal was by fire. The 
accused walked barefoot over live brands, or stuck his hand into 
a flame, or carried a piece of red-hot iron for a certain distance. 
In the ordeal by hot water he plunged his arm into boiling water. 
A man established his innocence through one of these tests, if 
the wound healed properly after three days. The ordeal by cold 
water rested on the belief that pure water would reject the crim- 
inal. Hence the accused was thrown bound into a stream: if 
he floated he was guilty; if he sank he was innocent and had to 
be rescued. Though a crude method of securing justice, ordeals 
were doubtless useful in many instances. The real culprit 
would often prefer to confess, rather than incur the anger of 
God by submitting to the test. 

A form of trial which especially appealed to the warlike nobles 
was the judicial duel.^ The accuser and the accused fought 
The judicial with each Other; and the conqueror won the case. 
^^^^ God, it was believed, would give victory to the 

innocent party, because he had right on his side. When one 

1 Sir Walter Scott's novel, Ivanhoe (chapter xliii), contains an account of a 
judicial duel. 



Feudal Justice 



421 



of the adversaries could not fight, he secured a champion to 
take his place. Though the judicial duel finally went out of 
use in the law courts, it still continued to be employed pri- 
vately, as a means 
of settling disputes 
which involved a 
man's honor. The 
practice of dueling is 
only now dying out 
in civilized communi- 
ties. 

Oaths, ordeals, and 
duels formed an in- 
heritance from Ger- 
manic Feudal and 
antiqui- Roman law 
ty.^ They offered a 
sharp contrast to 
Roman law, which 
acted in the public 
interest, balanced evi- 
dence, and sought only 
to get at the truth. 
After the middle of the twelfth century the revival of the study 
of Roman law, as embodied in Justinian's code,^ led gradually 
to the abandonment of most forms of appeal to the judgment 
of God. At the same time the kings grew powerful enough 
to take into their own hands the administration of justice. 




Trial by Combat 

From a manuscript of the fifteenth century. 



152. Feudal Warfare 

Feudahsm, once more, was a system of local defense. The 

knight must guard his small estate, the baron his _ , 

1 1 1 • 1 , , , . Feudalism 

barony, the count his county, the duke his duchy, as a system 

At the lord's bidding the vassal had to follow of local 
1 • ^ . 1 , . -, . defense 

mm to war, either alone or with a certain num- 
ber of men, according to the size of the fief. But this assist- 

1 See page 326. 2 See page 331. 



422 



Feudalism 



The feudal 
army 



ance was limited. A vassal served only for a definite period 
(varying from one month to three in the year), and then only 
within a reasonable distance from the lands for which he did 
homage. These restrictions made it difficult to conduct a 
lengthy campaign, or one far removed from the vassal's fief, 
unless mercenary soldiers were employed. 

The feudal army, as a rule, consisted entirely of cavalry. 
Such swiftly moving assailants as the Northmen and the Mag- 
yars could best be dealt 
with by mounted men 
who could 
bring them to 
bay, compel them to fight, 
and overwhelm them by 
the shock of the charge. 
In this way the foot sol- 
diers of Charlemagne's 
time came to be replaced 
by the mailed horsemen 
who for four centuries or 
more dominated European 
battlefields. 

The armor used in the 
Middle Ages was grad- 
ually perfected, until at length the knight became a living 
fortress.^ In the early feudal period he wore a cloth or leather 
Arms and tunic covered with iron rings or scales, and an 
armor ^^.q^ with nose guard. About the beginning 

of the twelfth century he adopted chain mail, with a hood of 
the same material for the head. During the fourteenth century 
the knight began to wear heavy plate armor, weighing fifty 
pounds or more, and a helmet with a visor which could be 
raised or lowered. Thus completely incased in metal, pro- 
vided with shield, lance, straight sword or battle-ax, and 
mounted on a powerful horse, the knight could ride down 
almost any number of poorly armed peasants. Not till the 

1 See the illustrations, pages 408, 421, 422, 473. 




Mounted Knight 

Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted 
knight in complete mail armor; date about 1265 a.d. 



Feudal Warfare 



423 



development of missile weapons — the longbow, and later 
the musket — did the foot soldier resume his importance 
in w^arfare. The feudal age by this time was drawing to 
a close. 

The nobles regarded the right of waging war on one another 
as their most cherished privilege. Fighting became almost a 
form of business enterprise, which enriched the prevalence 
lords and their retainers through the sack of castles, of private 
the plunder of \dllages, and the ransom of prisoners. 
Every hill became a stronghold and every plain a battlefield. 
Such neighborhood warfare, though rarely very bloody, spread 
terrible havoc throughout the land. 

The Church, to its great honor, hfted a protesting voice 
against this evil. It proclaimed a "Peace of God" and forbade 
attacks on all defenseless people, including priests, ^j^^ p^^^^ 
monks, pilgrims, merchants, peasants, and women, and Truce 
But it was found impossible to prevent the feudal 
lords from warring with each other, even though they w^re 
threatened with the eternal torments of Hell; and so the Church 
tried to restrict w^hat it could not altogether abolish. A "Truce 
of God" was established. All men were to cease fighting from 
Wednesday evening to Monday morning of each week, during 
Lent, and on various holy days. The truce w^ould have given 
Christendom peace for about tw^o hunded and forty days each 
year; but it seems never to have been strictly observed except 
in limited areas. 

As the power of the kings increased in w^estern Europe, they 
naturally sought to put an end to the constant fighting betw^een 
their subjects. The Norman rulers of Normandy, Abolition 
England, and Sicily restrained their turbulent of private 
nobles with a strong hand. Peace came later 
in most parts of the Continent; in Germany, "fist right" 
(the rule of the strongest) prevailed until the end of the 
fifteenth century. The abolition of private w^ar was the 
first step in Europe toward universal peace. The second 
step — the aboHtion of pubUc war between nations — is yet 
to be taken. 



424 



Feudalism 



153. The Castle and Life of the Nobles 

The outward mark of feudalism was the castle/ where the lord 
resided and from which he ruled his fief. In its earhest form 




S. Gate Jrom Escarpment 
ITi.Flanking Towers 
V Outer Tbwerz 
yi.Connectin^ h/a/l 
~Y Stockade m River 
Z.Z GreatDiiches 



K . High Angle To wei~ KJ'nirance Ga te 

^^ Srna//er Sic/e Tower L. Counterscarps 

CCDB. Corner Tower "M.Aeep 
E . Outer £nceipie,orZower Court N. Es carpmen t 
f^- ^^1^ O. Postern Tower 

O.H^Bu,Jc{,nS5 In lower Court P. Postern Gate 

Plan of Chateau Gaillard 

The plan is intended to represent that of a typical castle, as 
the plan of Kirkstall Abbey represents that of a typical monastery. 

the castle was simply a wooden blockhouse placed on a mound 
Develop- surrounded by a stockade. About the begin- 

ment of the ning of the twelfth century the nobles began to 
castle build in stone, which would better resist fire and the 

assaults of besiegers. A stone castle consisted at first of a single 
tower, square or round, with thick walls, few windows, and often 

iThe French form of the word is chateau. 



The Castle and Life of the Nobles 425 



with only one room to each story.^ As engineering skill in- 
creased, several towers were built and were then connected 
by outer and inner walls. The castle thus became a group of 
fortifications, which might cover a wide area. 




PlERREFOXDS 

A castle near Paris, built about 1400 a.d. by a brother of the king of 
France. It was dismantled in 1632 a.d., but was carefully restored in the 
nineteenth century by order of Napoleon III. The exterior faithfully re- 
produces the appearance of a medieval fortress. 

Defense formed the primary purpose of the castle. Until 
the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, the only siege 
engines employed were those known in ancient The castle 
times. They included machines for hurling heavy as a fortress 
stones and iron bolts, battering rams, and movable towers, 
from which the besiegers crossed over to the walls. Such 
engines could best be used on firm, level ground. Consequently, 
a castle would often be erected on a high cliff or hill, or on an 
island, or in the center of a swamp. A castle without such nat- 
ural defenses would be surrounded by a deep ditch (the "moat"), 
usually filled with water. If the besiegers could not batter 
down or undermine the massive walls, they adopted the slower 
method of a blockade and tried to starve the garrison into 

1 A good example is the "WTiite Tower," which forms a part of the Tower of 
London. It was built by WiUiam the Conqueror. See the illustration, page 498. 




Chateau Gaillaed (Restored) 

The finest of all medieval castles. Located on a high hill overlooking the Seine, about 
twenty miles from Rouen. Built by Richard the Lion-hearted within a twelvemonth 
(1197-1198 A.D.) and by him called " Saucy Castle." It was captured a few years later 
by the French king, Philip Augustus, and was dismantled early in the seventeenth century. 
The castle consisted of three distinct series of fortifications, besides the keep, which in 
this case was merely a strong tower. 



The Castle and Life of the Nobles 427 



surrendering. But ordinarily a well-built, well-provisioned 
castle was impregnable. Behind its frowning battlements even 
a petty lord could defy a royal army. 

A visitor to a medieval castle crossed the drawbridge over 
the moat and approached the narrow doorway, which was pro- 
tected by a tower on each side. If he was admitted, a castle 
the iron grating ("portcullis") rose slowly on its descnbed 
creaking pulleys, the heavy, wooden doors swung open, and he 
found himself in the courtyard commanded by the great central 
tower ("keep"), where the 
lord and his family lived, 
especially in time of war. 
At the summit of the keep 
rose a platform whence the 
sentinel surveyed the coun- 
try far and wide; below, 
two stories underground, 
lay the prison, dark, darnp, 
and dirty. As the visitor 
walked about the court- 
yard, he came upon the 
hall, used as the lord's 
residence in time of peace, the armory, the chapel, the kitchens, 
and the stables. A spacious castle might contain, in fact, all 
the buildings necessary for the support of the lord's servants 
and soldiers. 

The medieval castle formed a good fortress, but a poor home. 
Its small rooms, lighted only by narrow windows, heated only 
by fireplaces, badly ventilated, and provided with ^j^^ castle 
Httle furniture, must have been indeed cheerless. 
Toward the close of the feudal period, when life 
became more luxurious, the castle began to look less like a dun- 
geon. Windows were widened and provided with panes of 
painted glass, walls were hung with costly tapestries, and floors 
were covered with thick Oriental rugs. The nobles became 
attached to their castle homes and often took their names from 
those of their estates. 




King and Jester 

From a manuscript of the early fifteenth century. 



residence 



428 



Feudalism 



Life within the castle was very dull. There were some games, 
especially chess, which the nobles learned from the Moslems. 
Amusements Banqueting, however, formed the chief indoor 
of the nobles amusement. The lord and his retainers sat down 
to a gluttonous feast and, as they ate and drank, watched the 
pranks of a professional jester or listened to the songs and music 
of ministrels or, it ma}^ be, heard with wonder the tales of far- 
off countries brought by some returning traveler. Outside 
castle walls a common sport was hunting in the forests and game 
preserves attached to every estate. Deer, bears, and wild 
boars were hunted with hounds; for smaller animals trained 
hawks, or falcons, were employed. But the nobles, as we have 
just seen, found in fighting their chief outdoor occupation and 
pastime. "To play a great game" was their description of a 
battle. 

154. Knighthood and Chivalry 

The prevalence of warfare in feudal times made the use of 
arms a profession requiring special training. A nobleman's 
Apprentice- served for a number of years, first as a page, 

ship of the then as a squire, in his father's castle or in that of 
some other lord. He learned to manage a horse, 
to climb a scaling ladder, to wield sword, battle-ax, and lance. 
He also waited on the lord's table, assisted him at his toilet, 
followed him in the chase, and attended him in battle. This 
apprenticeship usually lasted from five to seven years. 

When the young noble became of age, he might be made a 
knight, if he deserved the honor and could afford the expense. 
Conferring of The Ceremony of conferring knighthood was often 
knighthood j^ost elaborate. The candidate fasted, took a 
bath — the symbol of purification — and passed the eve of his 
admission in prayer. Next morning he confessed his sins, went 
to Mass, and listened to a sermon on the duties of knighthood. 
This ended, his father, or the noble who had brought him up, 
girded him with a sword and gave him the ''accolade," that is, 
a blow on the neck or shoulder, at the same time saying, "Be 
thou a good knight." Then the youth, clad in shining armor 



Knighthood and Chivaby 429 



and wearing golden spurs, mounted his horse and exhibited his 
skill in warlike exercises. If a squire for valorous conduct 
received knighthood on the battlefield, the accolade by stroke 
of the sword formed the only ceremony. 




Falconry 

From a manuscript of the thirteenth century in the Bibliotheque 
Nationale, Paris. 



In course of time, as manners softened and Christian teach- 
ings began to affect feudal society, knighthood developed into 
chivahy. The Church, which opposed the warlike ^j^^^y 
excesses of feudahsm, took the knight under her 
wing and bade him be always a true soldier of Christ. To the 
rude virtues of fidehty to one's lord and bravery in battle, the 
Church added others. The "good knight" was he who re- 
spected his sworn word, who never took an unfair advantage of 
another, who defended women, widows, and orphans against 
their oppressors, and who sought to make justice and right 
prevail in the world. Chivalry thus marked the union of 
pagan and Christian virtues, of Christianity and the profession 
of arm^s. 

Needless to say, the " good knight " appears rather in romance 
than in sober history. Such a one was Sir Lancelot, in the 
stories of King Arthur and the Round Table. ^ As The Chival- 
Sir Lancelot lies in death, a former companion 
addresses him in words which sum up the best in the chivalric 

1 See page 560. 



430 



Feudalism 



code: "Thou wert the courtHest knight that ever bare shield; 
and thou wert the truest friend to thy lover that ever bestrode 
horse; and thou wert the truest lover among sinful men that 
ever loved woman; and thou wert the kindest man that ever 
struck with sword; and thou wert the goodhest person that 
ever came among press of knights; and thou wert the meekest 
man, and the gentlest, that ever ate in hall among ladies; and 
thou wert the sternest knight to thy mortal foe that ever put 
spear in the rest.'" ^ 

The all-absorbing passion for fighting led to the invention of 
mimic warfare in the shape of jousts and tournaments.^ These 
Jousts and exercises formed the medieval equivalent of the 
tournaments Greek athletic games and the Roman gladiatorial 
shows. The joust was a contest between two knights; the tour- 
nament, between two bands of knights. The contests took 
place in a railed-ofE space, called the "lists," about which the 
spectators gathered. Each knight wore upon his helmet the 
scarf or color of his lady and fought with her eyes upon him. 
Victory went to the one who unhorsed his opponent or 
broke in the, proper manner the greatest number of lances. 
The beaten knight forfeited horse and armor and had to pay 
a ransom to the conqueror. Sometimes he lost his life, espe- 
cially when the participants fought with real weapons and not 
with blunted lances and pointless swords. The Church now 
and then tried to stop these performances, but they remained 
universally popular until the close of the Middle Ages. 

Chivalry arose with feudalism, formed, in fact, the religion of 
Influence of feudalism, and passed away only when the changed 
chivalry conditions of society made feudalism an anachro- 
nism.^ While chivalry lasted, it produced some improvement in 

1 Malory, Morte d' Arthur, xxi, 13. See also Tennyson's poem, Sir Galahad, 
for a beautiful presentation of the ideal knight. 

2 Sir Walter Scott's novel, Ivanhoe (chapter xii), contains a description of a 
tournament. 

3 Don Quixote, by the Spanish writer, Cervantes (1547-1616 a.d.), is a famous 
satire on chivalry. Our American "Mark Twain" also stripped off the gilt and 
tinsel of chivalry in his amusing story entitled A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of 
King Arthur. 



Feudalism as a System of Local Industry 431 



manners, particularly by insisting on the notion of personal 
honor and by fostering greater regard for women (though only 
for those of the upper class). Our modern notion of the con- 
duct befitting a "gentleman" goes back to the old chivahic 
code. Chivalry expressed, however, simply the sentiments of 
the warUke nobles. It was an aristocratic ideal. The knight 
despised and did his best to keep in subjection the toiling 
peasantry, upon whose backs rested the real burden of feudal 
society. 

155. Feudalism as a System of Local Industry 

Under the Roman Empire western Europe had been filled 
ith fiourishins: cities.^ The Germanic invasions led to a gradual 



w 



decay of trade and manufacturing, and hence of Decline of 
the cities in which these activities centered. As ^t)aiiiife 
urban hfe declined, the mass of the population came to Hve more 
and more in isolated rural communities. This was the great 
economic feature of the early Middle Ages. 

The introduction of feudahsm fostered the movement from 
town to country, for feudalism, as has been shown, rested on 
the soil as its basis. The lord, his family, his ser- Feudalism 
vants, and his retainers were supported by the 
income from landed property. The countr}' estate of a lord 
was known as a manor. 

A manor naturally varied in size, according to the vv-ealth of 

its lord. In England perhaps six hundred acres represented the 

extent of an average estate. Everv noble had at 

1 1 1 • 1' 1 "^^^ manor 

least one manor; great nobles might have several 

manors, usuaUy scattered throughout the country; and even 

the king depended on his many manors for the food supply of 

the court. England, during the period following the Norman 

Conquest, contained more than nine thousand of these manorial 

estates.- 

1 See page 208. 

2 According to Domesday Book (see page 49Q) there were 9250 manors, of 
which Wilham the Conqueror possessed 1422. His manors lay in about thirty 
counties. 




Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century 

Plowing. Harrowing. Cutting Weeds. Reaping. 



Feudalism as a System of Local Industry 433 



Of the arable land of the manor the lord reserved as much 

as needful for his own use. The lord's land was called his 

''demesne," or domain. The rest of the land he ^ 

Common 

allotted to the peasants who were his tenants, cultivation of 
They cultivated their holdings in common. A ^^^^^^^ 
farmer, instead of having his land in one compact 
mass, had it split up into a large number of small strips (usually 
about half an acre each) scattered over the manor, and separated, 
not by fences or hedges, but by banks of unplowed turf. The 
appearance of a manor, when under cultivation, has been likened 
to a vast checkerboard or a patchwork quilt.^ The reason for 
the intermixture of strips seems to have been to make sure that 
each farmer had a portion both of the good land and of the bad. 
It is obvious that this arrangement compelled all the peasants 
to labor according to a common plan. A man had to sow the 
same kinds of crops as his neighbors, and to till and reap them 
at the same time. Agriculture, under such circumstances, 
could not fail to be unprogressive. 

In other ways, too, agriculture was very backward. Farmers 
did not know how to enrich the soil by the use of fertilizers 
or how to provide for a proper rotation of crops. Farming 
Hence each year they cultivated only two-thirds methods 
of the land, letting the other third lie "fallow" (uncultivated), 
that it might recover its fertility. It is said that eight or nine 
bushels of grain represented the average yield of an acre. Farm 
animals were small, for scientific breeding had not yet begun. 
A full-grown ox reached a size scarcely larger than a calf of 
to-day, and the fleece of a sheep often weighed less than two 
ounces. Farm implements were few and clumsy. The wooden 
ploughs only scratched the ground. Harrowing was done with 
a hand implement little better than a large rake. Grain was 
cut with a sickle, and grass was mown with a scythe. It took 
five men a day to reap and bind the harvest of two acres. 

Besides his holding of farm land, which in England averaged 
about thirty acres, each peasant had certain rights over the 

^ This "open field" system of agriculture, as it is usually called, still survives in 
some parts of Europe. See the plan of Hitchin Manor, page 435. 



434 



Feudalism 



non-arable land of the manor. He could cut a limited amount 
Common use ^^^^ meadow. He could turn so many 

of the non- farm animals — cattle, geese, swine — on the waste, 
arable land ^^^^ enjoyed the privilege of taking so much 

wood from the forest for fuel and building purposes. A 
peasant's holding, which also included a house in the vil-' 
lage, thus formed a complete outfit. 

156. The Village and Life of the Peasants 

The peasants on a manor lived close together in one or more 
villages. Their small, thatch-roofed, and one-roomed houses 
A village would be grouped about an open space (the 
descnbed "green"), or on both sides of a single, narrow 
street. The only important buildings were the parish church, 
the parsonage, a mill, if a stream ran through the manor, and 
possibly a blacksmith's shop. The population of one of these 
villages often did not exceed one hundred souls. 

Perhaps the most striking feature of a medieval village was 
its self-sufficiency. The inhabitants tried to produce at home 
A village as everything they required, in order to avoid the 
self-sufficmg uncertainty and expense of trade. The land gave 
them their food; the forest provided them with wood for houses 
and furniture. They made their own clothes of flax, wool, and 
leather. Their meal and flour were ground at the village mill, 
and at the village smithy their farm implements were manu- 
factured. The chief articles which needed to be brought from 
some distant market were salt, used to salt down farm animals 
killed in autumn, iron for various tools, and millstones. Cattle, 
horses, and surplus grain also formed common objects of ex- 
change between manors. 

Life in a medieval village was rude and rough. The peasants 
labored from sunrise to sunset, ate coarse fare, lived in huts, 
Hard lot of and suffered from frequent pestilences. They 
the peasantry ^^^^ often the helpless prey of the feudal nobles. 
If their lord happened to be a quarrelsome man, given to fight- 
ing with his neighbors, they might see their lands ravaged, their 
cattle driven off, their viUage burned, and might themselves 



The Village and Life of the Peasants 435 



be slain. Even under peaceful conditions the narrow, shut-in 
life of the manor could not be otherwise than degrading. 

Yet there is another side to the picture. Ji the peasants had 
a just and generous lord, they probably led a fahly comfortable 
existence. Except when crops failed, they had an AUeviations 
abundance of food, and possibly wine or cider to of the 
drink. They shared a common life in the work of P®^^^* ^ 
the fields, in the sports of the \allage green, and in the services 




Pl-\n of Hitchin Manor, Heetpordshire 

Lord's demesne, diagonal lines. 

Meadow and pasture lands, dotted areas. 

Normal holding of a peasant, black strips. 

of the parish church. They enjoyed many holidays; it has been 
estimated that, besides Sundays, about eight weeks in every 
year were free from work. Festi\dties at Christmas, Easter, 
and May Day, at the end of ploughing and the completion of 
harvest, reheved the monotony of the daily round of labor.^ 

1 See pages 581-582. 



Feudalism 



Perhaps these medieval peasants were not much worse off than 
the agricultural laborers in most countries of modern Europe. 

157. Serfdom 

A medieval village usually contained several classes of labor- 
ers. There might be a number of freemen, who paid a fixed 
Freemen, either in money or produce, for the use of 

slaves, and their land. Then there might also be a few slaves 
in the lord's household or at work on his domain. 
By this time, however, slavery had about died out in western 
Europe. Most of the peasants were serfs. 

Serfdom represented a stage between slavery and freedom. 
A slave belonged to his master; he was bought and sold hke 
Nature of Other chattels. A serf had a higher position, for 
serfdom ^le could not be sold apart from the land nor could 
his holding be taken from him. He was fixed to the soil. On 
the other hand a serf ranked lower than a freeman, because he 
could not change his abode, nor marry outside the manor, nor 
bequeath his goods, without the permission of his lord. 

The serf did not receive his land as a free gift; for the use of 
it he owed certain duties to his master. These took chiefly the 
Obligations form of personal services. He must labor on the 
of the serf lord's domain for two or three days each week, 
and at specially busy seasons, such as ploughing and harvesting, 
he must do extra work. At least half his time was usually de- 
manded by the lord. The serf had also to make certain pay- 
ments, either in money or more often in grain, honey, eggs, 
or other produce. When he ground the wheat or pressed the 
grapes which grew" on his land, he must use the lord's mill, 
the lord's wine-press, and pay the customary charge. In 
theory the lord could tax his serfs as heavily and make them 
work as hard as he pleased, but the fear of losing his tenants 
doubtless in most cases prevented him from imposing too 
great burdens on them. 

Serfdom developed during the later centuries of the Roman 
Empire and in the early Middle Ages. It was well established 
by the time of Charlemagne. Most serfs seem to have been 



Decline of Feudalism 



437 



the descendants, or at least the successors, of Roman slaves, 
whose condition had gradually improved. The origin of 
serf class was also recruited from the ranks of serfdom 
freemen, who by conquest or because of the desire to gain the 
protection of a lord, became subject to him. Serfdom, how- 
ever, was destined to be merely a transitory condition. By 
the close of medieval times, the serfs in most parts' of western 
Europe had secured their freedom.^ 

158. Decline of Feudalism 

Feudahsm had a vigorous life for about five hundred years. 
Taking definite form early in the ninth century, it flourished 
throughout the later Middle Ages, but became Dtu-ation of 
decadent by the opening of the fourteenth century, feudalism 

As a system of local government, feudahsm tended to pass 

away when the rulers in England, France, and Spain, and later 

in Germany and Italy, became powerful enough 

, • . , Forces 

to put down private warfare, execute justice, and opposed to 

maintain order everywhere in their dominions, feudalism: 

the kings 

The kings were always anti-feudal. We shall 

study in a later chapter ^ the rise of strong governments and 

centralized states in western Europe. 

As a system of local industry, feudahsm could not survive the 

great changes of the later Middle Ages, when reviving trade, 

commerce, and manufactures had begun to lead „ 

' ^ Forces 

to the increase of wealth, the growth of markets, opposed to 

and the substitution of money payments for those feudalism: 

^ ^ ^ . the cities 

m produce or services. Flourishing cities arose, 

as in the days of the Roman Empire, freed themselves from the 

control of the nobles, and became the homes of hberty and 

democracy. The cities, like the kings, were always anti-feudal. 

We shah deal with their development in a subsequent chapter.^ 

There was stiU another anti-feudal force, namely, the Roman 

Church. It is true that many of the higher clergy The Church 

were feudal lords, and that even the monasteries feudahsm 

owTied vast estates which were parceled out among tenants. 

1 See page 612. 2 See chapter xxii. 3 See chapter xxiii. 



438 



Feudalism 



Nevertheless, the Roman Church as a universal organization, 
including men of all ranks and classes, was necessarily opposed 
to feudalism, a local and an aristocratic system. The work 
and influence of this Church will now engage our attention. 

Studies 

I. Write a brief essay on feudal society, using the following words: lord; 
vassal; castle; keep; dungeon; chivalry; tournament; manor; and serf. 2. Ex- 
plain the following terms: vassal; fief; serf; "aid "; homage; squire; investiture; 
and "relief." 3. Look up the origin of the words homage, castle, dungeon, 
and chivalry. 4. "The real heirs of Charlemagne were from the first neither 
the kings of France nor those of Italy or Germany; but the feudal lords." 
Comment on this statement. 5. Why was the feudal system not found in 
the Roman Empire in the East during the Middle Ages? 6. Why has feudaUsm 
been called "confusion roughly organized"? 7. Contrast feudalism as a political 
system with (a) the classical city-states, (b) the Roman Empire, and (c) modern 
national states. 8. What was the effect of feudalism on the sentiment of patriot- 
ism? 9. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of primogeniture 
as the rule of inheritance? 10. Explain these phrases: "to be in hot water;" "to 
go through iire and water;" and "to haul over the coals." 11. Compare the oaths 
administered to witnesses in modern courts with medieval oaths. 12. Why was 
war the usual condition of feudal society? 13. Compare the "Peace of God" 
with the earlier "Roman Peace" {Pax Romano). 14. Mention some modern 
comforts and luxuries which were unknown in feiidal castles. 15. What is the 
present meaning of the word "chivalrous"? How did it get that meaning? 
16. Why has chivalry been called "the blossom of feudalism"? 17. Contrast 
the ideal of a chivalry with that of monasticism. 18. Show that the serf was 
not a slave or a "hired man" or a tenant-farmer paying rent. 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 A.D.i 

159. Characteristics of the Medieval Church 

A PRECEDING chapter dealt with the Christian Church in 
the East and West during the early Middle Ages. We learned 
something about its organization, belief, and wor- The Roman 
ship, about the rise and growth of the Papacy, Church 
about monasticism, and about that missionary campaign which 
won all Europe to Christianity. Our narrative extended to the 
middle of the eleventh century, when the quarrel between pope 
and patriarch led at length to the disruption of Christendom. 
We have now to consider the work and influence of the Roman 
Church during later centuries of the Middle Ages. 

The Church at the height of its power held spiritual sway 
over all western Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of 
Spain, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, the xemtorial 
British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Ice- extent of the 
land yielded obedience to the pope of Rome. Chiurch 

Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice. 
All people, except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person 
joined the Church by baptism, a rite usually per- The Church 
formed in infancy, and remained in it as long as universal 
he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least out- 
wardly, to the doctrines and practices of the Church, and any- 
one attacking its authority was liable to punishment by the 
state. 

The presence of one Church throughout the western world fur- 
nished a bond of union between European peoples jj^g chnrch 
during the age of feudahsm. The Church took as inter- 
no heed of political boundaries, for men of all 
nationalities entered the ranks of the priesthood and joined 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter x, "Monastic 
Life in the Twelfth Century"; chapter xi, "St. Francis and the Franciscans." 

439 



440 



The Papacy and the Empire 



the monastic orders. Priests and monks were subjects of no 
country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they sometimes 
called themselves. Even difference of language counted for 
Httle in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of 
the educated classes. One must think, then, of the Church 
as a great international state, in form a monarchy, presided 
over by the pope, and with its capital at Rome. 

The Church in the ^liddle Ages performed a double task. 
On the one hand it gave the people religious instruction and 
Twofold watched over their morals; on the other hand it 
duties of the played an important part in European politics and 
provided a means of government. Because the 
Church thus combined ecclesiastical and civil functions, it was 
quite unhke all modern churches, whether Greek, Roman, or 
Protestant. Both sides of its activities deserve, therefore, to 
be considered. 

160. Church Doctrine and Worship 

In medieval times every loyal member of the Church accepted 
without question its authority in rehgious matters. The 
** The gate Church taught a behef in a personal God, all- wise, 
of Heaven " all-good, all-powerful, to know whom was the high- 
est goal of life. The avenue to this knowledge lay through faith 
in the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since 
the unaided human reason could not properly interpret the 
Scriptures, it was necessary for the Church, through her 
officers, to declare their meaning and set forth what doctrines 
were essential to salvation. The Church thus appeared as 
the sole repository of rehgious knowledge, as "the gate of 
heaven.'' 

Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain 
beliefs. There were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in 
^j^g which the faithful Christian must participate, if 

sacramental he was not to be cut off eternally from God. These 
system ^^^^ formed channels of heavenly grace; they 

saved man from the consequences of his sinful nature and filled 
him with "the fullness of di\dne life." Since priests alone 



Church Doctrine and Worship 441 



could administer the sacraments,^ the Church presented itself 

as the necessary mediator between God and man. 

By the thirteenth century seven sacraments were generally 

recognized. Four of these marked critical stages in human Hfe, 

from the cradle to the grave. Baptism cleansed Baptism, 

the child from the taint of original sin and admitted Confirmation, 

. r Matumony, 

him into the Christian community. Connrma- andExti-eme 

tion gave him full Church fellowship. Matrimony U^iction 
united husband and wife in holy bonds which might never be 
broken. Extreme Unction, the anointing with oil of one mor- 
tally ill, purified the soul and endowed it with strength to meet 
death. 

Penance held an especially important place in the sacra- 
mental system. At least once a year the Christian must confess 

his sins to a priest. If he seemed to be truly ^ 

, . 1 1 T ; Penance 

repentant, the priest pronounced the solemn w^ords 

of absolution and then required him to accept some punishment, 
which varied according to the nature of the offense. There was 
a regular code of penalties for such sins as drunkenness, avarice, 
perjury, murder, and heresy. Penances often consisted in 
fasting, reciting prayers, abstaining from one's ordinary amuse- 
ments, or beating oneself with bundles of rods. A man who 
had sinned grievously might be ordered to engage in charitable 
work, to make a contribution in money for the support of the 
Church, or to go on a pilgrimage to a sacred shrine. The more 
distant and difficult a pilgrimage, the more meritorious it was, 
especially if it led to some very holy place, such as Rome or Jeru- 
salem. People might also become monks in order to atone 
for evil-doing. This system of penitential punishment referred 
only to the earthly life; it was not supposed to cleanse the 
soul for eternity. 

The sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, generally known as the 
Mass, formed the central feature of worship. It Holy 
was more than a common meal in commemoration Eucharist 
of the Last Supper of Christ with the Apostles. It was a 

1 In case of necessity baptism might be performed by any lay person of adult 
years and sound mind. 



442 



The Papacy and the Empire 



solemn ceremony, by which the Christian beheved himself to 
receive the body and blood of Christ, under the form of bread 
and wine.^ The right of the priest to withhold the Eucharist 
from any person, for good cause, gave the Church great power, 
because the failure to partake of this sacrament imperiled one's 
chances of future salvation. It was also supposed that the 
benefits of the ceremony in purifying from sin might be enjoyed 

by the dead in Pur- 
gatory; hence masses 
were often said for the 
repose of their souls. 

The seventh and 
last sacrament, that of 
Ordination, or "Holy 

^ ^. . Orders," 
Ordination . 

admitted 

persons to the priest- 
hood. According to 
the view of the 
Church the rite had 
been instituted by 
Christ, when He chose 
the Apostles and sent 
them forth to preach 
the Gospel. From the 
Apostles, who or- 
dained their succes- 
sors, the clergy in 
all later times re- 
ceived their exalted 
authority. ^ Ordina- 
tion conferred spiritual power and set such an indelible mark 
on the character that one who had been ordained could never 
become a simple layman again. 

1 This doctrine is known as transubstantiation. In the Roman Church, as has 
been noted (page 363), wine is not administered to the laity. 

2 Hence the term "ApostoUcal Succession." 




Pilgrims to Canterbury 

From a medieval manuscript 

Canterbury with its cathedral appears in the background. 
The shrine of Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, 
formed a celebrated resort for medieval pilgrims. The 
archbishop had been murdered in the church (irSo a.d.), 
if not at the instigation, at any rate without the opposi- 
tion of King Henry 11, whose policies he opposed. Becket, 
who was regarded as a martyr, soon received canonization. 
Miracles were said to be worked at his grave and at the 
well in which his bloody garments had been washed. He 
remained the most popular saint in England until the 
Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, when 
his shrine was destroyed. 



Church Doctrine and Worship 443 



The Church did not rely solely on the sacramental system as 
a means to salvation. It was believed that holy persons, called 
saints,^ who had died and gone to Heaven, offered Reverence 
to God their prayers for men. Hence the practice 
arose of invoking the aid of the saints in all the concerns of hfe. 
The earhest saints were Christian martyrs,^ who had sealed their 
faith with their blood. In course of time many other persons, 
renowned for pious deeds, were exalted to sainthood. The 
making of a new saint, after a rigid inquiry into the merits of 
the person whom it is proposed to honor, is now a privilege 
reserved to the pope. 

High above all the saints stood the Virgin Mary, the Mother 
of God. Devotion to her as the "Queen of Heaven" increased 
rapidly in the Church after the time of Gregory Devotion to 
the Great. The popularity of her cult owed not ^® Virgin 
a httle to the influence of chivalry,^ for the knight, who vowed 
to cherish womanhood, saw in the Virgin the ideal woman. 
Everyw'here churches arose in her honor, and no cathedral or 
abbey lacked a chapel dedicated to Our Lady. 

The growing reverence for saints led to an increased interest 
in relics. These included the bones of a saint and shreds of his 
garments, besides such objects as the wood or nails ^^^^^ 
of the cross on which Christ suffered. ReHcs were 
not simply mementos; they were supposed to possess miraculous 
power which passed into them through contact with holy persons. 
This behef explains the use of rehcs to heal diseases, to ward off 
danger, and, in general, to bring good fortune. An oath taken 
upon rehcs was especially sacred.^ Every church building 
contained a collection of rehc^, sometimes amounting to thou- 
sands in number, and even private persons often owned them. 

The Church also taught a behef in Purgatory as a state or 
place of probation.^ Here dwelt the souls of those who were 

1 Latin sanctus, "holy." 

2 See page 234. 
» See page 431. 

* See pages 407, 418. 

5 The belief in. Purgatory is not held by Protestants or by members of the Greek 
Church. 



444 The Papacy and the Empire 

guilty of no mortal sins which would condemn them to Hell, 

_ ^ but yet were burdened with imperfections which 

Purgatory ^ 

prevented them from entering Heaven. Such 
imperfections, it was held, might be removed by the prayers 
of the living, and hence the practice arose of praying for the 
dead. 

161. Church Jurisdiction 

The 'Church had regular courts and a special system of law ^ 
for the trial of offenders against its regulations. Many cases. 
Church which to-day would be decided according to the 

courts ^lyii Qj. criminal law of the state, in the Middle 

Ages came before the ecclesiastical courts. Since marriage 
was considered a sacrament, the Church took upon itself to 
decide what marriages were lawful. It forbade the union of 
first cousins, of second cousins, and of godparents and god- 
children. It refused to sanction divorce, for whatever cause, 
if both parties at the time of marriage had been baptized Chris- 
tians. The Church dealt with inheritance under wills, for a 
man could not make a legal will until he had confessed, and con- 
fession formed part of the sacrament of Penance. All contracts 
made binding by oaths came under Church jurisdiction, because 
an oath was an appeal to God.^ The Church tried those who 
were charged with any sin against religion, including heresy, 
blasphemy, the taking of interest (usury), and the practice of 
witchcraft. Widows, orphans, and the families of pilgrims or 
crusaders also enjoyed the special protection of Church courts. 

The Church claimed the privilege of judging all cases which 
involved clergymen. No layman, it was declared, ought to 
*' Benefit of interfere with one who, by the sacrament of 
clergy" Ordination, had been dedicated to God. This 
demand of the Church to try its own officers, according to its 
own mild and intelligent laws, seems not unreasonable, when 
we remember how rude were the methods of feudal justice. 
Biit ''benefit of clergy," as the privilege was called, might be 



1 The so-called "canon law." See page 568. 

2 See page 420. 



Church Jurisdiction 



445 



abused. Many persons who had no intention of acting as 
priests or monks became clergymen, in order to shield them- 
selves behind the Church in case their misdeeds were exposed. 

An interesting illustration of the power of the Church is 
afforded by the right of "sanctuary." Any lawbreaker who 
fled to a church building enjoyed, for a hmited Right of 
time, the privilege of safe refuge. It was consid- "sanctuary" 
ered a sin against God to drag even the most wicked criminal 
from the altar. The most that could be done was to deny the 
refugee food, so that he might come forth voluntarily. This 
privilege of seeking sanctuary was not without social usefulness, 
for it gave time for angry passions to cool, thus permitting an 
investigation of the charges against an offender. 

Disobedence to the regulations of the Church might be 
followed by excommunication. It was a punishment which cut 
off the offender from all Christian fellowship. He Excommuni- 
could not attend rehgious services nor enjoy the ^^^^^ 
sacraments so necessary to salvation. If he died excommuni- 
cate, his body could not be buried in consecrated ground. By 
the law of the state he lost all civil rights and forfeited all his 
property. No one might speak to him, feed him, or shelter 
him. This terrible penalty, it is well to point out, was usually 
imposed only after the sinner had received a fair trial and had 
spurned all entreaties to repent.^ 

The interdict, another form of punishment, was directed 
against a particular locality, for the fault of some of the inhab- 
itants who could not be reached directly. In 

r ' T 1 • 1 11 11 Interdict 

trnie of mterdict the priests closed the churches 

and neither married the living nor buried the dead. Of the 
sacraments only Baptism, Confirmation, and Penance were 
permitted. All the inhabitants of the afflicted district were 
ordered to fast, as in Lent, and to let their hair grow long in 
sign of mourning. The interdict also stopped the wheels of 
government, for courts of justice were shut, wills could not be 
made, and public officials were forbidden to perform their duties. 
In some cases the Church went so far as to lay an. interdict upon 

1 For two instances of the use of excommunication see pages 459 and 461. 



446 



The Papacy and the Empire 



an entire kingdom, whose ruler had refused to obey her man- 
date.^ The interdict has now passed out of use, but excom- 
munication still retains its place among the spiritual weapons 
of the Church. 

162. The Secular Clergy 

Some one has said that in the Middle Ages there were just 
three classes of society: the nobles who fought; the peasants 
The secular "^^^ worked; and the clergy who prayed. The 
and regular latter class was divided into the secular ^ clergy, 
clergy including deacons, priests, and bishops, who lived 

active lives in the world, and the regular^ clergy, or monks, 
who passed their days in seclusion behind monastery walls. 

It has been already pointed out how early both secular and 
regular clergy came to be distinguished from the laity by 
Position of abstention from money-making activities, differ- 
the clergy ences in dress, and the obligation of celibacy.^ 
Being unmarried, the clergy had no family cares; being free 
from the necessity of earning their own living, they could devote 
all their time and energy to the service of the Church. The 
sacrament of Ordination, which was believed to endow the 
clergy with divine power, also helped to strengthen their in- 
fluence. They appeared as a distinct order, in whose charge 
was the care of souls and in whose hands were the keys of heaven. 

An account of the secular clergy naturally begins with the 
parish priest, who had charge of a parish, the smallest division 
Parish of Christendom. No one could act as a priest 

priests without the approval of the bishop, but the noble- 

man who supported the parish had the privilege of nominating 
candidates for the position. The priest derived his income 
from lands belonging to the parish, from tithes,^ and from 
voluntary contributions, but as a rule he received little more 

1 For two instances of this sort see page 461. 

2 Latin sceculum, used in the sense of "the world." 

3 Latin regula, a "rule," referring to the rule or constitution of a monastic order. 

4 See page 344. 

B The tithe was a tenth part of the yearly income from land, stock, and personal 
industry. 



The Secular Clergy 



447 



than a bare living. Tlie parish priest was the only Church 
officer who came continually into touch with the common 
people. He baptized, married, and buried his parishioners. 
Por them he celebrated Mass at least once a week, heard 
confessions, and granted absolution. He watched over all their 
deeds on earth and prepared them for the life to come. And if 
he preached little, he seldom failed to set in his own person an 
example of right living. 

The church, with its spire which could be seen afar off and 
its bells which called the faithful to worship, formed the social 
center of the parish. 
Here on Sun- The parish 
days and holy 
days the people assem- 
bled for the morning and 
evening services. During 
the interval between relig- 
ious exercises they often 
enjoyed games and other 
amusements in the adjoin- 
ing churchyard. As a 
place of public gathering 
the parish church held 
an important place in 
the life of the Middle 
Ages. 

A group of parishes 
formed a diocese, over which a bishop presided. It was his 
business to look after the property belonging to 
the diocese, to hold the ecclesiastical courts, to 
visit the clergy, and to see that they did their duty. The 
bishop alone could administer the sacraments of Confirmation 
and Ordination. He also performed the ceremonies at the 
consecration of a new church edifice or shrine. Since the 
Church held vast estates on feudal tenure, the bishop was 
usually a territorial lord, owning a vassal's obligations to the 
king or to some powerful noble for his land and himself 




A Bishop ordaining a Priest 

From an English manuscript of the twelfth cen- 
tury. The bishop wears a miter and holds in his 
left hand the pastoral staff, or crosier. His right 
hand is extended in blessing over the priest's head. 



Bishops 



448 



The Papacy and the Empire 



ruling over vassals in different parts of the country. As sym- 
bols of his power and dignity the bishop wore on his head the 
miter and carried the pastoral staff, or crosier.^ 

Above the bishop in rank stood the archbishop. In Eng- 
Archbishops example, there were two archbishops, one 

residing at York and the other at Canterbury. 
The latter, as ''primate of all England," was the highest 
ecclesiastical dignitary in the land. An archbishop's distinc- 
tive vestment consisted of the pallium, a narrow band of white 
wool, worn around the neck. The pope alone could confer the 
right to wear the pallium. 

The church which contained the official seat or throne ^ of 
The a bishop or archbishop was called a cathedraL 

cathedral ordinarily the largest and most magnifi- 

cent church in the diocese.^ 

163. The Regular Clergy 

The regular clergy, or monks, during the early Middle Ages 
belonged to the Benedictine order. By the tenth century, 
Decline of however, St. Benedict's Rule had lost much of its 
monasticism force. As the monasteries increased in wealth 
through gifts of land and goods, they sometimes became centers 
of idleness, luxury, and corruption. The monks forgot their vows 
of poverty; and, instead of themselves laboring as farmers, 
craftsmen, and students, they employed laymen to work for 
them. At the same time powerful feudal lords frequently 
obtained control of the monastic estates by appointing as 
abbots their children or their retainers. Grave danger existed 
that the monasteries would pass out of Church control and 
decline into mere fiefs ruled by worldly men. 

A great revival of ' monasticism began in 910 a.d., with the 
foundation of the monastery of Cluny in eastern France. The 
The Cluniac monks of Cluny led lives of the utmost self-denial 
revival followed the Benedictine Rule in all its strict- 

ness. Their enthusiasm and devotion were contagious; before 

1 See the illustration, page 447. 2 Latin cathedra. 

3 For the architecture of a medieval cathedral see pages 562-565. 



The Regular Clergy 



449 



long Cluny became a center from ^yliich a reformatory move- 
ment spread over France and then over all western Europe. 
By the middle of the t^Yeh'th century more than three hundred 
monasteries looked to Cluny for inspiration and guidance. 

Each of the earlier Benechctine monasteries had been an 
isolated community, independent and seh-governing. Conse- 
quently, when discipline grew lax or when the abbot -pj^g "Con- 
proved to be an incapable ruler, it was dif&cult gregation of 
to correct the evils which arose. In the Cluniac ^^^^ 
system, however, all the monasteries formed parts of one organ- 
ization, the '"Congregation of Cluny." The abbot of Cluny 
appointed their "priors," or heads, and required every monk 
to pass several years of his monastic hfe at Cluny itseh. This 
monarchical arrangement helps to explain why for two hundred 
years the abbot of Cluny was, next to the pope, the most impor- 
tant churclmian in western Europe. 

Other monastic orders arose in the eleventh and twelfth 
centuries. Of these, the most important was the Cistercian, 
founded in 1098 a.d. at Citeaux, not far from Cluny. -pj^^ 
The ke}Tiote of Cistercian hfe was the return to a Cistercian 
literal obedience of St. Benedict's Rule. Hence 
the members of the order hved in the utmost simplicity, cooking 
their own meager repasts and wearing coarse woolen garments 
woven from the fleeces of their own sheep. The Cistercians 
especially emphasized the need for manual labor. They were 
the best farmers and cattle breeders of the ^Middle Ages. West- 
ern Europe owes even more to them than to the Benedictines 
for their work as pioneers in the wilderness. The Cistercians,"' 
declared a medieval writer, "are a model to aU monks, a mirror 
for the dihgent, a spur to the indolent."" 

The whole spirit of medieval monasticism found expression 
in St. Bernard, a Burgundian of noble birth. While still a 
young man he resolved to leave the world and seek Bernard 
the repose of the monastic life. He entered 1090-1153 
Citeaux, carrying with him thirty companions. 
Mothers are said to have hid their sons from him, and wives 
their husbands, lest they should be converted to monasticism 



450 The Papacy and the Empire 



by his persuasive words. After a few years at Citeaux St. 
Bernard established the monastery of Clairvaux, over which he 
ruled as abbot till his death. His ascetic life, piety, eloquence, 
and ability as an executive soon brought him into prominence. 
People visited Clairvaux from far and near to listen to his 
preaching and to receive his counsels. The monastery flourished 
under his direction and became the parent of no less than sixty- 
five Cistercian houses which were planted in the wilderness. 
St. Bernard's activities widened, till he came to be the most 
influential man in western Christendom. It was St. Bernard 
who acted as an adviser of the popes, at one time deciding 
between two rival candidates for the Papacy, who combated 
most vigorously the heresies of the day, and who by his fiery 
appeals set in motion one of the crusades.^ The charm of his 
character is revealed to us in his sermons and letters, while 
some of the Latin hymns commonly attributed to him are still 
sung in many churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. 

164. The Friars 

The history of Christian monasticism exhibits an ever-widen- 
ing social outlook. The early hermits ^ had devoted themselves, 
Coming of they believed, to the service of God by retiring 

the fnars desert for prayer, meditation, and bodily 

mortification. St. Benedict's wise Rule, as followed by the 
medieval monastic orders, marked a change for the better. It 
did away with extreme forms of self-denial, brought the monks 
together in a common house, and required them to engage in 
daily manual labor. Yet even the Benedictine system had its 
limitations. The monks lived apart from the world and sought 
chiefly the salvation of their own souls. A new conception of 
the monastic life arose early in the thirteenth century, with the 
coming of the friars.^ The aim of the friars was social service. 
They lived active lives in the world and devoted themselves 
entirely to the salvation of others. The foundation of the 
orders of friars was the work of two men, St. Francis in Italy 
and St. Dominic in Spain. 

1 See page 474. 2 See page 352. 3 La,tm frater, "brother." 



The Friars 



451 



Twenty-eight years after the death of St. Bernard, St. Francis 
was born at Assisi. As the son of a rich and prominent merchant 
St. Francis had before him the prospect of a fine st. Francis, 
career in the world. But he put away all thoughts 1181 (?)-l226 
of fame and wealth, deserted his gay companions, 
and, choosing ''Lady Poverty" as his bride, started out to min- 
ister to lepers and 




social outcasts. One 
day, while attend- 
ing Mass, the call 
came to him to 
preach the Gospel, 
as Christ had 
preached it, among 
the poor and lowly. 
The man's earnest- 
ness and charm of 
manner soon drew 
about him devoted 
followers. After 
some years St. 
Francis went to 
Rome and obtained 
Pope Innocent Ill's 
sanction of his work. 
The Franciscan 
order spread so 
rapidly that even 
in the founder's lifetime there were several thousand members 
in Italy and other European countries. 

St. Francis is one of the most attractive figures in all history. 
Perhaps no other man has ever tried so seriously to imitate in 
his own life the Hfe of Christ. St. Francis went st. Francis, 
about doing good. He resembled, in some re- the man 
spects, the social workers and revivalist preachers of to-day. 
In other respects he was a true child of the Middle Ages. 
An ascetic, he fasted, wore a hair-cloth shirt, mixed ashes 



St. Francis blessing the Birds 

From a painting by the Italian artist Giotto. 



452 



The Papacy and the Empire 



with his food to make it disagreeable, wept daily, so that his 
eyesight was nearly destroyed, and every night flogged him- 
seK with iron chains. A mystic, he lived so close to God and 
nature that he could include within the bonds of his love not 
only men and women, but also animals, trees, and flowers. 
He preached a sermon to the birds and once wrote a hymn 
to praise God for his ''brothers," sun, wind, and fire, and for 
his "sisters," moon, water, and earth. When told that he had 
but a short time to live, he exclaimed, "Welcome, Sister Death!" 
He died at the age of forty-five, worn out by his exertions and 
self-denial. Two years later the pope made him a saint. 

St. Dominic, unlike St. Francis, was a clergyman and a 
student of theology. After being ordained he went to southern 
St. Dominic France and labored there for ten years among a 
1170-1221 heretical sect known as the Albigenses. The 
order of Dominicans grew out of the little band 
of volunteers who assisted him in the mission. St. Dominic 
sent his followers — at first only sixteen in number — out into 
the world to combat heresy. They met with great success, 
and at the founder's death the Dominicans had as many as 
sixty friaries in various European cities. 

The Franciscans and Dominicans resembled each other in 
many ways. They were "itinerant," going on foot from place 
Character- place, and wearing coarse robes tied round the 
istics of the waist with a rope. They were "mendicants," ^ who 
fnars possessed no property but lived on the alms of 

the charitable. They were also preachers, who spoke to the 
people, not in Latin, but in the common language of each 
country which they visited. The Franciscans worked especially 
in the "slums" of the cities; the Dominicans addressed them- 
selves rather to educated people and the upper classes. As time: 
went on, both orders relaxed the rule of poverty and became 
very wealthy. They still survive, scattered all over the world 
and employed in teaching and missionary activity. ^ 

1 Latin mendicare, "to beg." 

2 In England the Franciscans, from the color of their robes, were called Gray- 
Friars, the Dominicans, Black Friars. 



Power of the Papacy 453 

The friars by their preaching and ministrations did a great 
deal to call forth a rehgious re\ival in Europe during the 
thirteenth centurv'. In particular they helped -j-j^g 
to strengthen the papal authoritv*. Both orders and the 
received the sanction of the pope; both enjoyed ^^^^^^ 
many pri\dlege3 at his hands; and both looked to him for 
direction. The pope employed them to raise money, to preach 
crusades, and to impose excommunications and interdicts. 
The Franciscans and Dominicans formed, in fact, the agents 
of the Papacy. 

165. Power of the Papacy 

The name ''pope"" - seems at hrst to have been apphed to all 
priests as a title of respect and afiection. The Greek Chiu-ch 
still continues this use of the word. In the West j-^^ pope's 
it gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of exalted 
Rome as his official title. The pope was addressed 
in speaking as ""Your Holiness."' His exalted position was 
further indicated by the tiara, or headdress with triple crowns, 
worn by h im in processions.- He went to solemn ceremonies 
sitting in a chair supported on the shoulders of his guard. He 
gave audience from an elevated throne, and all who approached 
him kissed his feet in reverence. As "■Christ's Vicar" he 
claimed to be the representative on earth of the Almighty. 

The pope was the supreme lawgiver of the Chtu-ch. His 

decrees might not be set aside by any other person. He made 

new laws in the form of '"bulls"' ^ and bv his "dis- 

pensations could m particular cases set aside old the head of 

laws, such as those forbidding cousins to marr\' western 

' , . . . ^ , . ^' Christendom 

or monks to obtam release trom their vows. The 

pope was also the supreme judge of the Church, for aU appeals 
from the lower ecclesiastical courts came before him for decision. 
Finally, the pope was the supreme administrator of the Church. 
He conhrmed the election of bishops, deposed them, when neces- 
sary, or transferred them from one diocese to another. Xo 



1 Latin papa, "father." » See the Ulustration, page 34S. 

» So called from the lead seal (Latin bulla) attached to papal doomients. 



454 The Papacy and the Empire 



archbishop might perform the functions of his office until he 
had received the pallium from the pope's hands. The pope 
also exercised control over the monastic orders and called 
general councils of the Church. 

The authority of the pope was commonly exercised by the 
''legates," ^ whom he sent out as his representatives at the vari- 
The papal ous European courts. These officers kept the pope 
legates ^i^^^ touch with the condition of the Church in 

every part of western Europe. A similar function is performed 
in modern times by the papal ambassadors known as ''nuncios." 

For assistance in government the pope made use of the cardi- 
nals,^ who formed a board, or "college." At first they were 
The chosen only from the clergy of Rome and the 

cardinals vicinity, but in course of time the pope opened the 
cardinalate to prominent churchmen in all countries. The 
number of cardinals is now fixed at seventy, but the college is 
never full, and there are always ten or more "vacant hats," as 
the saying goes. The cardinals, in the eleventh century, 
received the right of choosing a new pope. A cardinal ranks 
above all other church officers. His dignity is indicated by 
the red hat and scarlet robe which he wears and by the title of 
"Eminence" applied to him. 

To support the business of the Papacy and to maintain the 
splendor of the papal court required a large annual income. 
Income of This came partly from the States of the Church 
the Papacy Italy, partly from the gifts of the faithful, and 

partly from the payments made by abbots, bishops, and arch- 
bishops when the pope confirmed their election to office. Still 
another source of revenue consisted of "Peter's Pence," a tax 
of a penny on each hearth. It was collected every year in 
England and in some Continental countries until the Reforma- 
tion. The modern "Peter's Pence" is a voluntary contribution 
made by Roman Catholics in all countries. 

The Eternal City, from which in ancient times the known 
world had been ruled, formed in the Middle Ages the capital 

1 Latin legatus, "deputy." 

2 Latin cardinalis, "principal." 



Popes and Emperors 455 

of the Papacy. Hither every year came tens of thousands of 
pilgrims to worship at the shrine of the Prince The capital 
of the Apostles. Few traces now remain of the of Papacy 
medieval city. Old St. Peter's Church, where Charlemagne 
was crowned emperor,^ gave way in the sixteenth century to 
the world-famous structure that now occupies its site.^ The 
Lateran Palace, which for more than a thousand years served 
as the residence of the popes, has also disappeared, its place 
being taken by a new and smaller building. The popes now 
live in the splendid palace of the Vatican, adjoining St. 
Peter's. 

The powers exercised by the popes during the later Middle 
Ages were not secured without a struggle. As a matter of fact 
the concentration of authority in papal hands -pj^g papacy 
was a gradual development covering several hun- and the 
dred years. The pope reached his exalted position ^^P"*® 
only after a long contest with the Holy Roman Emperor. This 
contest forms one of the most noteworthy episodes in medieval 
history. 

166. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 A.D. 

One might suppose that there could be no interference between 
pope and emperor, since they seemed to have separate spheres 
of action. It was said that God had made the „ , . 

Relations 

pope, as the successor of St. Peter, supreme m between pope 

spiritual matters and the emperor, as heir of the f^^, emperor 
-rt ^ .1 ^ theory 

Roman Caesars, supreme m temporal matters. 

The former ruled men's souls, the latter, men's bodies. The 

two sovereigns thus divided on equal terms the government of 

the world. 

The difficulty with this theory was that it did not work. No 
one could decide in advance where the authority xheirrela- 
of the pope ended and where that of the emperor tions in 
began. When the pope claimed certain powers ^^^^^^^ 
which were also claimed by the emperor, a conflict between 
the two rulers became inevitable. 



1 See page 311. 



2 See the plate facing page 591. 



456 The Papacy and the Empire 



In 962 A.D. Otto the Great, as we have learned/ restored 
imperial rule in the West, thus founding what in later centuries 
otto the came to be known as the Holy Roman Empire. 
Great and Otto as emperor possessed the rights of making the 
the Papacy ^.^^ Rome the imperial capital, of approving 
the election of the pope, and, in general, of exerting much 

influence in papal 
affairs. All these 
rights had been exer- 
cised by Charlemagne. 
But Otto did what 
Charlemagne had 
never done when he 
deposed a pope who 
proved disobedient to 
his wishes and on his 
own authority ap- 
pointed a successor. 
At the same time 
Otto exacted from the 
people of Rome an 
oath that they would 
never recognize any 
pope to whose elec- 
tion the emperor had 
not consented. 

The emperors who 
followed Otto repeat- 
edly interfered in elections to the Papacy. One strong ruler, 
The Papacy Henry III (103 9-1056 A.D.), has been called the 
''pope-maker." Early in his reign he set aside 
three rival claimants to the Papacy, creating a 
German bishop pope, and on three subsequent occasions filled 
the papal throne by fresh appointments. It was clear that if 
this situation continued much longer the Papacy would become 
simply an imperial office; it would be merged in the Empire. 

1 See page 317. 




The Spiritual and the Temporal Power 

A tenth-century mosaic in the church of St. John, Rome. 
It represents Christ giving to St. Peter the keys of heaven, 
and to Constantine the banner symbolic of earthly 
dominion. 



and Otto's 
successors 



Popes and Emperors 457 



The death of Henry III, which left the Empire in weak hands, 
gave the Papacy a chance to escape the control of the secular 
power. In 1059 a.d. a church council held at the p^p^ gj^^,, 
Lateran Palace decreed that henceforth the right tion bythe 
of choosing the supreme pontiff should belong 
exclusively to the cardinals, who represented the clergy of 
Rome. This arrangement has tended to prevent any inter- 
ference with the election of popes, either by the Roman people 
or by foreign sovereigns. 

Now that the Papacy had become independent, it began to 
deal with a grave problem which affected the Church at large. 
According to ecclesiastical rule bishops ought to Feudalizing 
be chosen by the clergy of their diocese and abbots °^ Church 
by their monks. With the growth of feudalism, however, 
many of these high dignitaries had become vassals, holding 
their lands as fiefs of princes, kings, and emperors, and 
owing the usual feudal dues. Their lords expected them to 
perform the ceremony of homage,^ before ''investing" them 
with the lands attached to the bishopric or monastery. One 
can readily see that in practice the lords really chose the bishops 
and abbots, since they could always refuse to ''invest" those 
who were displeasing to them. 

To the reformers in the Church lay investiture appeared 
intolerable. How could the Church keep itself unspotted from 
the world when its highest officers were chosen by 
laymen and were compelled to perform unpriestly ture from 
duties? In the act of investiture the reformers Church 

1 • r • o 1 1 r Standpoint 

also saw the sm of simony ^ — the sale of sacred 
powers — because there was such a temptation before the 
candidate for a bishopric or abbacy to buy the position with 
promises or with money. 

The lords, on the other hand, believed that as long as bishops 
and abbots held vast estates on feudal tenure they should con- 
tinue to perform the obhgations of vassalage. To forbid lay 

1 See page 418. 

2 A name derived from Simon Magus, who offered money to the Apostle Peter 
for the power to confer the Holy Spirit. See Acts, viii, 18-20. 



458 



The Papacy and the Empire 



investiture was to deprive the lords of all control over 

Layinvesti- Church dignitaries. The real difficulty of the 

tureas situation existed, of course, in the fact that the 

viewed by 

the secixlar bishops and abbots were both spiritual officers 
authority ^^(^ temporal rulers, were servants of both the 
Church and the State. They found it very difficult to serve 
two masters. 

In 1073 A.D. there came to the throne of St. Peter one of the 
most remarkable of the popes. This was Hildebrand, who, 
Pontificate of becoming pope, took the name of Gregory VII. 
Gregory VII, Of obscure Italian birth, he received his education 
1073-1085 Benedictine monastery at Rome and rose 

rapidly to a position of great influence in papal 
affairs. He is described as a small man, ungainly in appearance 
and with a weak voice, but energetic, forceful, and of imperious 
will. 

Gregory devoted all his talents to the advancement of the 
Papacy. A contemporary document,^ which may have been 
Gregory's of Gregory's own composition and at any rate 
expresses his ideas, contains the following state- 
ments: "The Roman pontiff alone is properly called universal. 
He alone may depose bishops and restore them to office. He is 
the only person whose feet are kissed by all princes. He may 
depose emperors. He may be judged by no one. He may 
absolve from their allegiance the subjects of the wicked. The 
Roman Church never has erred, and never can err, as the Scrip- 
tures testify." Gregory did not originate these doctrines, but 
he was the first pope who ventured to make a practical appHca- 
tion of them. 

Two years after Gregory became pope he issued a decree 
against lay investiture. It declared that no emperor, king, duke, 
Decree rnarquis, count, or any other lay person should 

against lay presume to grant investiture, under pain of excom- 
iOTyA*D^' munication. This decree was a general one, 
applying to all states of western Europe, but 
circumstances were such that it mainly affected Germany. 

1 The so-called Dictatus papce. 



Popes and Emperors 459 



Henry IV, the ruler of Germany at this time, did not refuse 
the papal challenge. He wrote a famous letter to Gregory, 
calling him "no pope but false monk," telling him Henry iv 
Christ had never called him to the priesthood, and 
and bidding him "come down," "come down" ^^^soryVll 
from St. Peter's throne. Gregory, in reply, deposed Henry as 
emperor, excommunicated him, and freed^ his subjects from 
their allegiance. 

This severe sentence made a profound impression in Ger- 
many. Henry's Canossa, 
adherents fell 1077 A.D. 
away, and it seemed probable 
that the German nobles would 
elect another ruler in his 
stead. Henry then decided 
on abject submission. He 
hastened across the Alps and 
found the pope at the castle 
of Canossa, on the northern 
slopes of the Apennines. It 
was January, and the snow 
lay deep on the ground. For 
three days the emperor stood 
shivering outside the castle 
gate, barefoot and clad in a 
coarse woolen shirt, the garb 
of a penitent. At last, upon 
the entreaties of the Countess 
Matilda of Tuscany, Gregory 
admitted Henry and granted absolution. It was a strange 
and moving spectacle, one which well expressed the tremen- 
dous power which the Church in the Middle Ages exercised 
over the minds of men. 

The dramatic scene at Canossa did not end the investiture 
conflict. It dragged on for half a century, being concordat of 
continued after Gregory's death by the popes who Worms, 1122 




Henry IV, Countess Matilda, 
AND Gregory VII 

From a manuscript of the tweKth century, 
now in the Vatican Library at Rome. 



succeeded him. At last in 11 22 a.d. the opposing 



A.D. 



460 



The Papacy and the Empire 



parties agreed to what is known as the Concordat of Worms, 
from the old German city where it was signed. 

The concordat drew a distinction between spiritual and lay 
investiture. The emperor renounced investiture by the ring 
Terms of the and crosier — the emblems of spiritual authority 
concordat — ^j^^ permitted bishops and abbots to be elected 
by the clergy and confirmed in ofhce by the pope. On the other 
hand the pope recognized the emperor's right to be present at 
all elections and to invest bishops and abbots by the scepter 
for whatever lands they held within his domains. This reason- 
able compromise worked well for a time. But it was a truce, 
not a peace. It did not settle the more fundamental issue, 
whether the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire should be 
supreme. 

167. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 A.D. 

Thirty years after the signing of the Concordat of Worms the 

emperor Frederick I, called Barbarossa from his red beard, 

^ , . , , succeeded to the throne. Frederick, the second 

Frederick I, . , ^ r 1 1 

emperor, oi the Hohenstaufen dynasty,^ was capable, 

A^rf ''^^^^ imaginative, and ambitious. He took Charle- 
magne and Otto the Great as his models and 
aspired like them to rule Christian Europe and the Church. 
His reign is the story of many attempts, ending at length 
in failure, to unite all Italy into a single state under German 
sway. 

Frederick's Italian policy brought him at once into conflict 
with two powerful enemies. The popes, who feared that his 
Frederick success would imperil the independence of the 
and the Papacy, opposed him at every step. The great 
Papacy cities of northern Italy, which were also threatened 

by Frederick's soaring schemes, united in the Lombard League 
to defend their freedom. The popes gave the league their sup- 
port, and in 11 76 a.d. Frederick was badly beaten at the battle 
of Legnano. The haughty emperor confessed himself conquered, 



1 The name of this German family comes from that of their castle in south- 
western Swabia. 



Popes and Emperors 461 



and sought reconciliation with the pope, Alexander III. In 

the presence of a vast throng assembled before St. Mark's 

Cathedral in Venice, Frederick knelt before the pope and 

humbly kissed his feet. Just a century had passed since the 

humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa. 

The Papacy reached the height of its power under Innocent 

III. The eighteen years of his pontificate were one long 

effort, for the most part successful, to make the ^ 

' ' Pontificate of 

pope the arbiter of Europe. Innocent announced innocent III, 
the claims of the Papacy in the most uncompro- 
mising manner. ''As the moon," he declared, 
''receives its light from the sun, and is inferior to the sun, so 
do kings receive all their glory and dignity from the Holy See." 
This meant, according to Innocent, that the pope has the right 
to interfere in all secular matters and in the quarrels of rulers. 
"God," he continued, "has set the Prince of the Apostles over 
kings and kingdoms, with a mission to tear up, plant, destroy, 
scatter, and rebuild." 

That Innocent's claims were not idle boasts is shown by 
what he accomplished. When Philip Augustus, king of France, 
divorced his wife and made another marriage, innocent and 
Innocent declared the divorce void and ordered King Philip 
him to take back his discarded queen. Philip 
refused, and Innocent, through his legate, put France under an 
interdict. From that hour all religious rites ceased. The 
church doors were barred; the church bells were silent, the 
sick died unshriven, the dead lay unburied. Philip, deserted 
by his retainers, was compelled to submit. 

On another occasion Innocent ordered John, the English 
king, to accept as archbishop of Canterbury a man of his own 
choosing. When John declared that he would innocent and 
never allow the pope's appointee to set foot on King John of 
English soil, Innocent replied by excommunicat- -^"^^^^^ 
ing him and laying his kingdom under an interdict. John 
also had to yield and went so far as to surrender England 
and Ireland to the pope, receiving them back again as fiefs, 
for which he promised to pay a yearly rent. This tribute 



462 



The Papacy and the Empire 



money was actually paid, though irregularly, for about a 
century and a half. 

Innocent further exhibited his power by elevating to the 
imperial throne Frederick II, grandson of Frederick Barbarossa. 
Frederick II young man, after Innocent's death, proved 

emperor, to be a most determined opponent of the Papacy. 
A^r?""*^^^^ He passed much of his long reign in Italy, warring 
vainly against the popes and the Lombard cities. 
Frederick died in 1250 a.d., and with him the Holy Roman 
Empire really ceased to exist.^ None of the succeeding 
holders of the imperial title exercised any authority outside 
of Germany. 

The death of Frederick II's son in 1254 a.d. ended the Hohen- 
staufen dynasty. There now ensued what is called the Inter- 
The Inter regnum, a period of nineteen years, during which 
regnum, Germany was without a ruler. At length the 
^254^1273 pope sent word to the German electors that if 
they did not choose an emperor, he would himself 
do so. The electors then chose Rudolf of Hapsburg^ (1273 
A.D.). Rudolf gained papal support by resigning all claims on 
Italy, but recompensed himself through the conquest of Austria.^ 
Ever since this time the Hapsburg dynasty has filled the Aus- 
trian throne. 

The conflict between popes and emperors was now ended. 
Its results were momentous. Germany, so long neglected by 
Outcome of its rightful rulers, who pursued the will-o'-the- 
the conflict ^^isp in Italy, broke up into a mass of duchies, 
counties, archbishoprics, and free cities. The map of the 
country at this time shows how numerous were these small 
feudal states. They did not combine into a strong govern- 
ment till the nineteenth century.^ Italy likewise remained dis- 
united and lacked even a common monarch. The real victor 

1 It survived in name until 1806 a.d., when the Austrian ruler, Francis II, laid 
down the imperial crown and the venerable title of "Holy Roman Emperor." 

2 Hapsburg was the name of a castle in northern Switzerland, 

3 See page 522. 

4 The modern German Empire dates from 1871 a.d. 




GERMANY AND 

ITALY 

During the Interregnum 
1254-1273 A.D. 



Longitude. 



East 10° from 



Significance of the Medieval Church 463 



was the Papacy, which had crushed the Empire and had pre- 
vented the union of Italy and Germany. 

168. Significance of the Medieval Church 

Medieval society, we have now learned, owed much to the 
Church, both as a teacher of religion and morals and as an 
agency of government. It remains to ask what The Church 
was the attitude of the Church toward the great warfare 
social problems of the Middle Ages. ' In regard to warfare, the 
prevalence of which formed one of the worst evils of the time, 
the Church, in general, cast its influence on the side of peace. 
It deserves credit for establishing the Peace and the Truce of 
God and for many efforts to heal strife between princes and 
nobles. Yet, as will be shown, the Church did not carry the 
advocac}^ of peace so far as to condemn warfare against heretics 
and infidels. Christians beheved that it was a religious duty 
to exterminate these enemies of God. 

The Church was distinguished for charitable work. The 
clergy received large sums for distribution to the needy. From 
the doors of the monasteries, the poor, the sick. The Church 
and the infirm of every sort were never turned charity 
away. Medieval charity, however, was very often injudicious. 
The problem of removing the causes of poverty seems never to 
have been raised; and the indiscriminate giving multiplied, 
rather than reduced, the number of beggars. 

Neither slavery nor serfdom, into which slavery gradually 
passed,^ was ever pronounced unlawful by pope or Church 
council. The Church condemned slavery only ^j^^ church 
when it was the servitude of a Christian in bondage and slavery 
to a Jew or an infidel. Abbots, bishops, and popes serfdom 
possessed slaves and serfs. The serfs of some wealthy monas- 
teries were counted by thousands. The Church, however, 
encouraged the freeing of bondmen as a meritorious act and 
always preached the duty of kindness and forbearance toward 
them. 

The Church also helped to promote the cause of human 

^ See pages 436-437. 



464 The Papacy and the Empire 



freedom oy insisting on the natural equality of all men in the 
sight of God. "The Creator," wrote one of the popes, "dis- 
tributes his gifts without regard to social classes. In his eyes 
Democracy there are neither nobles nor serfs." It was not 
of the necessary to be of noble birth to become a bishop. 

Church ^ cardinal, or a pope. Even serfs succeeded to 

the chair of St. Peter. Naturally enough, the Church attracted 
the keenest minds of the age, a fact which largely explains 
the influence exerted by the clergy. 

The influence of the clergy in medieval Europe was also due 
to the fact that they were almost the only persons of education. 
The clergy as except churchmen were able to read or write, 

the only edu- So generally was this the case that an offender 
cated class could prove himself a clergyman, thus securing 
"benefit of clergy," ^ if he showed his ability to read a single 
hne. It is interesting, also, to note that the word "clerk," 
which comes from the Latin clericus, was originally limited to 
churchmen, since they alone could keep accounts, write letters, 
and perform other secretarial duties. 

It is clear that priests and monks had much importance 
quite aside from their religious duties. They controlled the 
Importance schools, wrote the books, framed the laws, and, 
of the clergy general, acted as leaders and molders of public 
opinion. A most conspicuous instance of the authority wielded 
by them is seen in the crusades. These holy wars of Christen- 
dom against Islam must now be considered. 

Studies 

I. Explain the following terms: abbot; prior; archbishop; parish; diocese; 
regular clergy; secular clergy; friar; excommunication; simony; interdict; sac- 
rament; "benefit of clergy"; right of "sanctuary"; crosier; miter; tiara; papal 
indulgence; bull; dispensation; tithes; and "Peter's Pence." 2. Mention some 
respects in which the Roman Church in the Middle Ages differed from any religious 
society of the present day. 3. "Medieval Europe was a camp with a church in the 
background." Comment on this statement. 4. Explain the statement that "the 
Church, throughout the Middle Ages, was a government as well as an ecclesiastical 
organization." 5. Distinguish between the faith of the Church, the organization 
of the Church, and the Church as a force in history. 6. How did the belief in 
Purgatory strengthen the hold of the Church upon men's minds? 7. Name several 

1 See page 444. 



Studies 



465 



historic characters who have been made saints. 8. Why has the Roman Church 
always refused to sanction divorce? 9. Compare the social effects of excommunica- 
tion with those of a modern "boycott." 10. What reasons have led the Church 
to iasist upon ceUbacy of the clergy? 1 1 . Name four famous monks and four famous 
monasteries. i5. Could monks enter the secular clergy and thus become parish 
priests and bishops? 13. Mention two famous popes who had been monks. 
14. What justification was found in the New Testament {Matthew, x 8-10) for the 
organization of the orders of friars? 15. How did the Franciscans and Dominicans 
supplement each other's work? 16. "The monks and the friars were the miUtia 
of the Church." Comment on this statement. 17. Who is the present Pope? 
When and by whom was he elected? In what city does he reside? What is his 
residence called? 18. Why has the medieval Papacy been called the "ghost" of 
the Roman Empire? 19. In what sense is it true that the Holy Roman Empire 
was "neither holy nor Roman, nor an empire"? 



CHAPTER XX 

THE OCCroENT AGAINST THE ORIENT; THE 
CRUSADES, 1095-1291 A.D.i 

169. Causes of the Crusades 

The series of military expeditions, undertaken by the Chris- 
tians of Europe for the purpose of recovering the Holy Land 
Place of the fi'om the Moslems, have received the name of cru- 
crusadesin sades. In their widest aspect the crusades may 
history regarded as a renewal of the age-long contest 

between East and West, in which the struggle of Greeks and 
Persians and of Romans and Carthaginians formed the earlier 
episodes. The contest assumed a new character when Europe 
had become Christian and Asia Mohammedan. It was not 
only two contrasting types of civilization but also two rival 
world religions which in the eighth century faced each other 
under the walls of Constantinople and on the battlefield of 
Tours. Now, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they 
were to meet again. 

Seven or eight chief crusades are usually enumerated. To 
number them, however, obscures the fact that for nearly two 
Number of hundred years Europe and Asia were engaged in 
the crusades almost constant warfare. Throughout this period 
there was a continuous movement of crusaders to and from the 
Moslem possessions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. 

The crusades were first and foremost a spiritual enterprise. 
They sprang from the pilgrimages which Christians had long 
pagrimages ^^^^ accustomed to make to the scenes of Christ's 
to the life on earth. Men considered it a wonderful 

Holy Land privilege to see the cave in which He was born, 
to kiss the spot where He died, and to kneel in prayer at His 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xii, "Richard the 
Lion-hearted and the Third Crusade"; chapter xiii, "The Fourth Crusade and the 
Capture of Constantinople." 

466 



Causes of the Crusades 



467 



Abuse of 
pilgrims by 
the Turks 



tomb. The eleventh century saw an increased zeal for pil- 
grimages, and from this time travelers to the Holy Land were 
very numerous. For greater . security they often joined them- 
selves in companies and marched under arms. It needed 
little to transform such pilgrims into crusaders. 

The Arab conquest 
of the Holy Land had 
not interrupted the 
stream of 
pilgrims, 
for the 
early caliphs were 
more tolerant of un- 
behevers than Chris- 
tian emperors of here- 
tics. But after the 
coming of the Seljuk 
Turks into the East, 
pilgrimages became 
more difficult and 
dangerous. The Turks 
were a ruder people 
than the Arabs whom 
they displaced, and in 
not inchned to treat 




Combat between Crus-'U)ers and Moslems 

A pictiire in an eleventh-century window, formerly 
in the church of St. Denis, near Paris. 



their fanatic zeal for Islam were 
the Christians with consideration. 
Many tales floated back to Europe of the outrages committed 
on the pilgrims and on the sacred shrines venerated by all 
Christendom. Such stories, which lost nothing in the telling, 
aroused a storm of indignation throughout Europe and awak- 
ened the desire to rescue the Holy Land from the grasp of the 
^^infidel." 

But the crusades were not simply an expression of the simple 
faith of the Middle Ages. Something more than religious 
enthusiasm sent an unending procession of crusad- r^^ie crusades 
ers along the highways of Europe and over the and the 
trackless wastes of Asia Minor to Jerusalem. The "^^^^ classes 
crusades, in fact, appealed strongly to the warlike instincts of 



468 



The Crusades 



the feudal nobles. They saw in an expedition against the East 
an unequaled opportunity for acquiring fame, riches, lands, and 
power. The Normans were especially stirred by the prospect 
of adventure and plunder which the crusading movement 
opened up. By the end of the eleventh century they had 
established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, from which 
they now looked across the Mediterranean for further lands to 
conquer.^ Norman knights formed a very large element in 
several of the crusaders' armies. 

The crusades also attracted the lower classes. So great 
was the misery of the common people in medieval Europe that 
The lower them it seemed not a hardship, but rather a 

classes and relief, to leave their homes in order to better them- 
the crusades gg^ygg abroad. Famine and pestilence, poverty 
and oppression, drove them to emigrate hopefully to the golden 
East. 

The Church, in order to foster the crusades, promised both 
religious and secular benefits to those who took part in them. 
Privileges of A warrior of the Cross was to enjoy forgiveness of 
crusaders ^11 his past sins. If he died fighting for the faith, 
he was assured of an immediate entrance to the joys of Paradise. 
The Church also freed him from paying interest on his debts 
and threatened with excommunication anyone who molested 
his wife, his children, or his property. 



170. First Crusade, 1095-1099 A.D. 

The signal for the First Crusade was given by the conquests 

of the Seljuk Turks.^ These barbarians, at first the mercenaries 

and then the masters of the Abbasid caliphs, in- 

Occasion of fused fresh energy into Islam. They began a new 
the First , , , , . , . ? , 

Crusade era of Mohammedan expansion by wmnmg almost 

the whole of Asia Minor from the Roman Empire 

in the East. One of their leaders estabhshed himself at Nicaea, 

the scene of the first Church Council,^ and founded the 

sultanate of Rum (Rome). 

1 See page 412. 2 See pages 333, 380. ^ See page 235. 



First Crusade 



469 



The presence of the Turks so close to Constantinople was a 
standing menace to all Europe. The able emperor, Alexius I, 
on succeeding to the throne toward the close of j^ppg^i of 
the eleventh century, took steps to expel the emperor to 
invaders. He could not draw on the hardy tribes 
of Asia Minor for the soldiers he needed, but with reinforce- 
ments from the West he hoped to recover the lost provinces of 
the empire. Accordingly, in 1095 a.d., Alexius sent an embassy 
to Pope Urban II, the successor of Gregory VII, requesting aid. 
The fact that the emperor appealed to the pope, rather than to 
any king, shows what a high place the Papacy then held in 
the affairs of Europe. 

To the appeal of Alexius, Urban lent a willing ear. He sum- 
moned a great council of clergy and nobles to meet at Cler- 
mont in France. Here, in an address which, council of 
measured by its results, was the most momentous Clermont, 
recorded in history. Pope Urban preached the ^^^^ 
First Crusade. He said little about the dangers which threat- 
ened the Roman Empire in the East from the Turks, but dwelt 
chiefly on the wretched condition of the Holy Land, with its 
churches polluted by unbelievers and its Christian inhabitants 
tortured and enslaved. Then, turning to the proud knights who 
stood by. Urban called upon them to abandon their wicked 
practice of private warfare and take up arms, instead, against 
the infidel. Christ Himself," he cried, "will be your leader, 
when, like the Israelites of old, you fight for Jerusalem. . . . 
Start upon the way to the Holy Sepulcher; wrench the land 
from the accursed race, and subdue it yourselves. Thus shall 
you spoil your foes of their wealth and return home victorious, 
or, purpled with your own blood, receive an everlasting 
reward." 

Urban's trumpet call to action met an instant response. 
From the assembled host there went up, as it were, a single 
shout: "God wills it! God wills it!" "It is, in "GodwUls 
truth. His will," answered Urban, "and let these 
words be your war cry when you unsheath your swords against 
the enemy." Then man after man pressed forward to receive 



470 



The Crusades 



the badge of a crusader, a cross of red cloth.^ It was to be worn 
on the breast, when the crusader went forth, and on the back, 
when he returned. 

The months which followed the Council of Clermont were 
marked by an epidemic of religious excitement in western 
Prelude to Europe. Popular preachers everywhere took up 
the First the cry "God wills it!" and urged their hearers 
Crusade start for Jerusalem. A monk named Peter the 

Hermit aroused large parts of France with his passionate elo- 
quence, as he rode from town to town, carrying a huge cross 
before him and preaching to vast crowds. Without waiting 
for the main body of nobles, which was to assemble at Con- 
stantinople in the summer of 1096 a.d., a horde of poor men, 
women, and children set out, unorganized and almost unarmed, 
on the road to the Holy Land. One of these crusading bands, 
led by Peter the Hermit, managed to reach Constantinople, 
after suffering terrible hardships. The emperor Alexius sent 
his ragged aUies as quickly as possible to Asia Minor, where 
most of them were slaughtered by the Turks. 

Meanwhile real armies were gathering in the West. Recruits 
came in greater numbers from France than from any other 
The main country, a circumstance which resulted in the 
crusade crusaders being generally called ''Franks" by their 
Moslem foes. They had no single commander, but each con- 
tingent set out for Constantinople by its own route and at its 
own time. 2 

The crusaders included among their leaders some of the most 
distinguished representatives of European knighthood. Count 
Leaders of Raymond of Toulouse headed a band of volun- 
the crusade ^ggj-g fYom Provence in southern France. Godfrey 
of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin commanded a force of 
French and Germans from the Rhinelands. Normandy sent 
Robert, William the Conqueror's eldest son. The Normans 
from Italy and Sicily were led by Bohemond, a son of Robert 
Guiscard,^ and his nephew Tancred. 

1 Hence the name "crusades," from Latin crux, Old French crois, a "cross." 

2 For the routes followed by the crusaders see the map between pages 478-479. 

3 See page 412. 



First Crusade 



471 



Though the crusaders probably did not number more than 
fifty thousand fighting men, the disunion which prevailed 
among the Turks favored the success of their 
enterprise. With some assistance from the eastern 
emperor they captured Nicaea, overran Asia 
Minor, and at length reached Antioch, the key to 
northern Syria. The city fell after a siege of seven months, but 



The 

crusaders in 
Asia Minor 
and Syria 




"Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem 

More correctly called the Dome of the Rock. It was erected in 691 a.d., but many 
restorations have taken place since that date. The walls enclosing the entire structure 
were built in the ninth century, and the dome is attributed to Saladin (1189 a.d.). 
This building, with its brilliant tiles covering the walls and its beautiful stained glass, 
is a fine example of Mohammedan architecture. 

the crusaders were scarcely within the walls before they found 
themselves besieged by a large Turkish army. The crusaders 
were now in a desperate phght: famine wasted their ranks; 
many soldiers deserted; and Alexius disappointed all hope of 
rescue. But the news of the discovery in an Antioch church of 
the Holy Lance which had pierced the Savior's side restored 
their drooping spirits. The whole army issued forth from 
the city, bearing the relic as a standard, and drove the 
Turks in headlong flight. This victory opened the road to 
Jerusalem. 

Reduced now to perhaps one-fourth of their original numbers, 



472 



The Crusades 



the crusaders advanced slowly to the city which formed the 
Capture of S^^^ ^^^^^ efforts. Before attacking it they 

Jerusalem, marched barefoot in religious procession around 
1099 A.D. walls, with Peter the Hermit at their head. 

Then came the grand assault. Godfrey of Bouillon and Tancred, 
were among the first to mount the ramparts. Once inside the 
city, the crusaders massacred their enemies without mercy. 
Afterwards, we are told, they went ''rejoicing, nay for excess 
of joy weeping, to the tomb of our Savior to adore and give 
thanks." 

171. Crusaders' States in Syria 

After the capture of Jerusalem the crusaders met to elect 
a king. Their choice fell upon Godfrey of Bouillon. He refused 
Latin Wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ 

Kingdom of had worn a crown of thorns and accepted, instead, 
Jerusalem modest title of "Protector of the Holy Sepul- 

cher." ^ Godfrey died the next year and his brother Baldwin, 
who succeeded him, being less scrupulous, was crowned king 
at Bethlehem. The new kingdom contained nearly a score of 
fiefs, whose lords made war, administered justice, and coined 
money, like independent rulers. The main features of European 
feudalism were thus transplanted to Asiatic soil. 

The winning of Jerusalem and the district about it formed 
hardly more than a preliminary stage in the conquest of Syria. 
Other Much fighting was still necessary before the cru- 

crusaders' saders could establish themselves firmly in the 
states country. Instead of founding one strong power in 

Syria, they split up their possessions into the three principalities 
of Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa. These small states owed 
allegiance to the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

The ability of the crusaders' states to maintain themselves 
for many years in Syria was largely due to the foundation of 

1 The emperor Constantine caused a stately church to be erected on the sup- 
posed site of Christ's tomb. This church of the Holy Sepulcher was practically 
destroyed by the Moslems, early in the eleventh century. The crusaders restored 
and enlarged the structure, which still stands. 



Crusaders' States in Syria 



473 



two military-religious orders. The members were both monks 
and knights; that is, to the monastic vows of chas- Military- 
tity, poverty, and obedience they added a fourth religious 
vow, which bound them to protect pilgrims and ^^^^^^ 
fight the infidels. Such a combination of religion and warfare 
made a strong appeal to the medieval 
mind. 

The Hospitalers, the first of these 
orders, grew out of a brotherhood for 
the care of sick pilgrims in a Hospitalers 
hospital at Jerusalem. Many and Templars 
knights joined the organization, which 
soon proved to be very useful in defend- 
ing the Holy Land. Even more impor- 
tant were the Templars, so called because 
their headquarters in Jerusalem lay near 
the site of Solomon's Temple. Both 
orders built many castles in Syria, the 
remains of which still impress the 
beholder. They established numerous 
branches in Europe and, by presents 
and legacies, acquired vast wealth. The 
Templars were disbanded in the four- 
teenth century, but the Hospitalers 
continued to fight valiantly against the 
Turks long after the close of the cru- 
sading movement.^ 

The depleted ranks of the crusaders 
were constantly filled by fresh christian and 
bands of pilgrim knights who infidel in the 
visited Palestine to pray at H°^y^^^ 
the Holy Sepulcher and cross swords with the infidel. In 
spite of constant border warfare much trade and friendly 
intercourse prevailed between Christians and Moslems. They 
learned to respect one another both as foes and neighbors. 

1 The order of Hospitalers, now known as the "Knights of Malta," still survives 
in several European countries. 




Effigy of a Knight 
Templar 

Temple Church, London 

Shows the kind of armor 
worn between iigo and 
1225 A.D. 



474 



The Crusades 



The crusaders' states in Syria became, hke Spain ^ and Sicily,^ 
a meeting-place of East and West. 

172. Second Crusade, 1147-1149 A.D., and Third 
Crusade, 1189-1192 A.D. 

The success of the Christians in the First Crusade had been 
largely due to the disunion among their enemies. But the 
Origin of the Moslems learned in time the value of united action, 
Second and in 1144 a.d. succeeded in capturing Edessa, 
Crusade ^-^^ principal Christian outposts in the 

East. The fall of the city, followed by the loss of the entire 
county of Edessa, aroused western Europe to the danger which 
threatened the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and led to another 
crusading enterprise. 

The apostle of the Second Crusade was the great abbot of 
Clairvaux, St. Bernard.^ Scenes of the wildest enthusiasm 
Preaching of marked his preaching. When the churches were 
St. Bernard j^q^ large enough to hold the crowds which flocked 
to hear him, he spoke from platforms erected in the fields. St. 
Bernard's eloquence induced two monarchs, Louis VII of France 
and Conrad III of Germany, to take the blood-red cross of a 
crusader. 

The Second Crusade, though begun under the most favorable 
auspices, had an unhappy ending. Of the great host that set 
Failure of from Europe, only a few thousands escaped 

the Second annihilation in Asia Minor at the hands of the 
Crusade Turks. Louis and Conrad, with the remnants of 
their armies, made a joint attack on Damascus, but had to 
raise the siege after a few days. This closed the crusade. As a 
chronicler of the expedition remarked, ''having practically 
accomplished nothing, the inglorious ones returned home." 

Not many years after the Second Crusade, the Moslem world 

found in the famous Saladin a leader for a holy war against the 

„ , • . Christians. Saladin in character was a typical 

Saladin 

Mohammedan, very devout in prayers and fast- 
ing, fiercely hostile toward unbelievers, and full of the pride of 

1 See page 383. 2 See page 413. ^ See pages 449-450. 



The Second and Third Crusades 475 



race. To these qualities he added a kindhness and humanity 
not surpassed, if equaled, by any of his Christian foes. He 
Hves in eastern history and legend as the hero who stemmed 
once for all the tide of European conquest in Asia. 

Having made himself sultan of Egypt, Saladin united the 
Moslems of Syria under his sway and then advanced against 
the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Christians ^^^^^ 
met him in a great battle near the lake of Galilee. Jerusalem 
It ended in the rout of their army and the capture ^l^^^' 
of their king. Even the Holy Cross, which they 
had carried in the midst of the fight, became the spoil of 
the conqueror. Saladin quickly reaped the fruits of victory. 
The Christian cities of Syria opened their gates to him, 
and at last Jerusalem itself surrendered after a short siege. 
Little now remained of the possessions which the crusaders 
had won in the East. 

The news of the taking of Jerusalem spread consternation 

throughout western Christendom. The cry for another crusade 

arose on all sides. Once more thousands of men . , 

Third 

sewed the cross in gold, or silk, or cloth upon their Cmsade 

garments and set out for the Holy Land. When organized, 

1189 A.D. 

the three greatest rulers of Europe — Philip 

Augustus,^ king of France, Richard I, king of England, and 

the German emperor, Frederick Barbarossa ^ — assumed the 

cross, it seemed that nothing could prevent the restoration of 

Christian supremacy in Syria. 

The Germans under Frederick Barbarossa were the first to 

start. This great emperor was now nearly seventy years old, yet 

age had not lessened his crusading zeal. He took 

, , , , Death of 

the overland route and after much hard fightmg Frederick 

reached southern Asia Minor. Here, however, he Barbarossa, 
111-1. 1190 A.D. 

was drownea, while trying to cross a swollen 

stream. Many of his discouraged followers at once returned 
to Germany; a few of them, however, pressed on and joined 
the other crusaders before the walls of Acre. 



1 See page 513. 



2 See page 460. 



476 



The Crusades 



Acre cap- 
tiired by 
Philip and 
Richard, 
1191 A.D. 



The expedition of the French and EngHsh achieved Kttle. 

Phihp and Richard, who came by 
sea, captured Acre after a hard 
siege, but their quarrels 
prevented them from fol- 
lowing up this initial suc- 
cess. Philip soon went 
home, leaving the further conduct 
of the crusade in Richard's hands. 

The English king remained for four- 
teen months longer in the Holy Land. 
His campaigns during this time gained 
for him the title of '^Lion- 
hearted," ^ by which he is 
always known. He had 
many adventures and per- 
formed knightly exploits without num- 
ber, but could not capture Jerusalem. 
Tradition declares that when, during 
a truce, some crusaders went up to 
Jerusalem, Richard refused to accom- 
pany them, saying that he would not 
enter as a pilgrim the city which he 

of the thirteenth century. King ^^^^^ rCSCUe aS a COUQUeror. He 

Richard on his return from the 

Holy Land was shipwrecked off and Saladin finally concluded a treaty 

the coast of the Adriatic. At- ^ ^^^^ ^\^[ch. Christians were 

permitted to visit Jerusalem without 
paying tribute. Richard then set sail 
for England, and with his departure 
by paying a ransom equivalent f j-qhi the Holy Land the Third Crusadc 

to more than twice the annual 

revenues of England. Came tO an Cud. 




Richard 
in the 
Holy Land, 
1191-1192 
A.D. 



RiCHAED I IN Prison 

From an illuminated manuscript 



tempting to travel through Austria 
in disguise, he was captured by 
the duke of Austria, whom he had 
offended at the siege of Acre. 
The king regained his liberty only 



173. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Con- 
stantinople, 1202-1261 A.D. 

The real author of the Fourth Crusade was the famous pope, 
Innocent IIL^ Young, enthusiastic, and ambitious for the 

1 In French Coeur-de-Lion, 2 See page 461. 



The Fourth Crusade 



477 



glory of the Papacy, he revived the plans of Urban II 
and sought once more to unite the forces of innocent III 
Christendom against Islam. No emperor or king and the 
answered his summons, but a number of knights crusade 
(chiefly French) took the crusader's vow. 

The leaders of the crusade decided to make Egypt their 
objective point, since this country was then the center of 
the Moslem power. Accordingly, the crusaders 
proceeded to Venice, for the purpose of secur- saders and 
ing transportation across the Mediterranean. The 
Venetians agreed to furnish the necessary ships only on condition 
that the crusaders first seized Zara on the eastern coast of the 
Adriatic. Zara was a Christian city, but it was also a naval 
and commercial rival of Venice. In spite of the pope's protests 
the crusaders besieged and captured the city. Even then they 
did not proceed against the Moslems. The Venetians per- 
suaded them to turn their arms against Constantinople. The 
possession of that great capital would greatly increase Venetian 
trade and influence in the East; for the crusading nobles it 
held out endless opportunities of acquiring wealth and power. 
Thus it happened that these soldiers of the Cross, pledged to 
war with the Moslems, attacked a Christian city, which for 
centuries had formed the chief bulwark of ETirope against the 
Arab and the Turk. 

The crusaders — now better styled the invaders — took 
Constantinople by storm. No ^'infidels" could have treated 
in worse fashion this home of ancient civilization. 
They burned down a great part of it; they slaugh- g^^j^^p^g"' 
tered the inhabitants; they wantonly destroyed 1204 A.D. ' 
monuments, statues, paintings, and manuscripts 
— the accumulation of a thousand years. Much of the movable 
wealth they carried away. Never, declared an eye-witness 
of the scene, had there been such plunder since the world 
began. 

The victors hastened to divide between them the lands of 
the Roman Empire in the East. Venice gained some districts 
in Greece, together with nearly all the ^Fgean islands. The 



478 



The Crusades 



chief crusaders formed part of the remaining territory into 
the Latin Empire of Constantinople. It was 
Empke^ organized in fiefs, after the feudal manner. There 
Constanti- was a prince of Achaia, a duke of Athens, a mar- 
1261^ A.]?.^ quis of Corinth, and a count of Thebes. Large 
districts, both in Europe and Asia, did not ac- 
knowledge, however, these ''Latin" rulers. The new empire 
lived less than sixty years. At the end of this time the 
Greeks returned to power. 

Constantinople, after the Fourth Crusade, declined in strength 
and could no longer cope with the barbarians menacing it. 
^. ^ Two centuries later the city fell an easy victim 

Disastrous 

consequence to the Turks.^ The responsibility for the disas- 
Cmsade^"^^ ter which gave the Turks a foothold in Europe 

rests on the heads of the Venetians and the 
French nobles. Their greed and lust for power turned the 
Fourth Crusade into a political adventure. 

The so-called Children's Crusade illustrates at once the reli- 
gious enthusiasm and misdirected zeal which marked the whole 

crusading movement. During the year 1212 a.d. 
Children's thousands of French children assembled in bands 
ml^A^D marched through the towns and villages, 

carr3ring banners, candles, and crosses and singing, 
"Lord God, exalt Christianity. Lord God, restore to us the 
true cross." The children could not be restrained at first, but 
finally hunger compelled them to return home. In Germany, 
during the same year, a lad named Nicholas really did succeed 
in launching a crusade. He led a mixed multitude of men and 
women, boys and girls over the Alps into Italy, where they 
expected to take ship for Palestine. But many perished of 
hardships, many were sold into slavery, and only a few ever 
saw their homes again. "These children," Pope Innocent III 
declared, "put us to shame; while we sleep they rush to recover 
the Holy Land." 

The crusading movement came to an end by the close of the 
thirteenth century. The emperor Frederick II ^ for a short 

1 See page 492. 2 gee page 462. 



I 




MEDITERRANEAN LANDS 
AFTER THE FOURTH CRUSADE 

1202-1204 A.D. 

C. = County 

D. =Duchy 
Doni.= Dominion 
Emp.= Empire 
K.=Kingdom 
P.=Principality 

THE M.-N. WORKS, BUFFALO, ' 



First crusade, 1096 - 1099 
Second crusade, 1147 - 1149 
Third crusade, 1189-1192 
Fourth crusade, 1202 - 1204 
Scale of Miles 

200 300 400 



Longitude West 0° East from Greenwich 



Results of the Crusades 



479 



time recovered Jerusalem by a treaty, but in 1224 a.d. the 
Holy City became again a possession of the End of the 
Moslems. They have never since relinquished crusades 
it. Acre, the last Christian post in Syria, fell in 1291 a.d., 
and with this event the Latin KLingdom of Jerusalem ceased 
to exist. The Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John, still kept 
possession of the important islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, 
which long served as a barrier to Moslem expansion over the 
Mediterranean. 

I 

174. Results of the Crusades 

The crusades, judged by what they set out to accomphsh, 
must be accounted an inglorious failure. After two hundred 
years of conflict, after a vast expenditure of wealth Failure of 
and human Hves, the Holy Land remained in the crusades 
^loslem hands. It is true that the First Crusade did help, by 
the conquest of Syria, to check the advance of the Turks toward 
Constantinople. But even this benefit was more than undone 
by the weakening of the Roman Empire in the East as a result 
of the Fourth Crusade. 

Of the many reasons for the failure of the crusades, three 
require special consideration. In the first place, there was the 
inabihty of eastern and western Europe to coop- -yVTiythe 
erate in supporting the holy wars. A united crusades 
Christendom might well have been invincible. ^^^^ 
But the bitter antagonism between the Greek and Roman 
churches ^ effectually prevented all unity of action. The emper- 
ors at Constantinople, after the First Crusade, rarely assisted 
the crusaders and often secretly hindered them. In the second 
place, the lack of sea-power, as seen in the earlier crusades, 
worked against their success. Instead of being able to go by 
water directly to Syria, it was necessary to follow the long, over- 
land route from France or Germany through Hungary, Bul- 
garia, the territory of the Roman Empire in the East, and the 
deserts and mountains of Asia Minor. The armies that reached 
their destination after this toilsome march were in no condition 

1 See pages 362-363. 



48o 



The Crusades 



for effective campaigning. In the third place, the crusaders 
were never numerous enough to colonize so large a country as 
Syria and absorb its Moslem population. They conquered 
part of Syria in the First Crusade, but could not hold it per- 
manently in the face of determined resistance. 

In spite of these and other reasons the Christians of Europe 
might have continued much longer their efforts to recover the 
^y^jjg Holy Land, had they not lost faith in the move- 
crusades ment. But after two centuries the old crusading 
enthusiasm died out, the old ideal of the crusade 
as "the way of God" lost its spell. Men had begun to think 
less of winning future salvation by visits to distant shrines and 
to think more of their present duties to the world about them. 
They came to believe that Jerusalem could best be won as 
Christ and the Apostles had won it — "by love, by prayers, 
and by the shedding of tears." 

The crusades could not fail to affect in many ways the life 
of western Europe. For instance, they helped to undermine 
feudalism. Thousands of barons and knights mortgaged or 
Influence of ^^^^ their lands in order to raise money for a cru- 
the crusades sading expedition. Thousands more perished in 
on feudalism gyj-j^^^ their estates, through failure of heirs, 
reverted to the crown. Moreover, private warfare, that curse 
of the Middle Ages,^ also tended to die out with the departure 
for the Holy Land of so many turbulent feudal lords. Their 
decline in both numbers and influence, and the corresponding 
growth of the royal authority, may best be traced in the 
changes that came about in France, the original home of the 
crusading movement. 

One of the most important effects of the crusades was on 
commerce. They created a constant demand for the trans- 
The crusades po^tation of men and supphes, encouraged ship- 
and building, and extended the market for eastern 

commerce ^ares in Europe. The products of Damascus, 
Mosul, Alexandria, Cairo, and other great cities were carried 
across the Mediterranean to the Italian seaports, whence they 

1 See page 423. 



Results of the Crusades 481 

found their way into all European lands. The elegance of the 
Orient, with its silks, tapestries, precious stones, perfumes, 
spices, pearls, and ivory, was so enchanting that an enthusiastic 
crusader called it "the vestibule of Paradise." 

Finally, it must be noted how much the crusades contributed 
to intellectual and social progress. They brought the inhab- 
itants of western Europe into close relations with ^, 

. r n ^1 • • crusades 
one another, with then* fellow Christians of the and 

Roman Empire in the East, and with the natives J^t^eUectual 
of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The intercourse 
between Christians and Moslems was particularly stimulating, 
because the East at this time surpassed the West in civiliza- 
tion. The crusaders enjoyed the advantages which come from 
travel in strange lands and among unfamiliar peoples. They 
went out from their castles or villages to see great cities, marble 
palaces, superb dresses, and elegant manners; they returned 
with finer tastes, broader ideas, and wider sympathies. Like 
the conquests of Alexander the Great, the crusades opened up a 
new world. 

When all is said, the crusades remain one of the most remark- 
able movements in history. They exhibited the nations of 
western Europe for the first time making a united significance 
effort for a common end. The crusaders were not of the 
hired soldiers, but volunteers, who, while the 
religious fervor lasted, gladly abandoned their homes and faced 
hardship and death in pursuit of a spiritual ideal. They failed 
to accomplish their purpose, yet humanity is the richer for the 
memory of their heroism and chivalry. 

Studies 

I. On an outline map indicate Europe and the Mediterranean lands by religions, 
about 1095 A.D. 2. On an outhne map indicate the routes of the First and the 
Third Crusades. 3. Locate on the map the following places: Clermont; Acre; 
Antioch; Zara; Edessa; and Damascus. 4. Identify the following dates: 1204 
A.D.; 1095 A.D.; 1096 A.D.; 1291 a.d. 5. Write a short essay describing the imag- 
inary experiences of a crusader to the Holy Land. 6. Mention some instances 
which illustrate the rehgious enthusiasm of the crusaders. 7. Compare the IMoham- 
medan pilgrimage to Mecca with the pilgrimages of Christians to Jerusalem in the 
Middle Ages. 8. Compare the Christian crusade with the Mohammeda-n jihad, 



482 The Crusades 

or holy war. g. How did the expression, a "red-cross knight," arise? 10. Why- 
is the Second Crusade often called "St. Bernard's Crusade"? 11. Why has the 
Third Crusade been called "the most interesting international expedition of the 
Middle Ages"? 12. Would the crusaders in 1204 a.d. have attacked Constanti- 
nople, if the schism of 1054 a.d. had not occurred? 13. "Mixture, or at least 
contact of races, is essential to progress." How do the crusades illustrate the 
truth of this statement? 14. Were the crusades the only means by which 
western Europe was brought in contact with Moslem civiUzation? 



• 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS TO 1453 A.D. 



175. The Mongols 

The extensive steppes in the middle and north of Asia have 
formed, for thousands of years, the abode of nomadic peoples 
belonging to the Yellow race. In prehistoric The Asiatic 
times they spread over northern Europe, but they counter- 
were gradually supplanted by white-skinned Indo- ^^^^ 
Europeans, until now only remnants of them exist, such as the 
Finns and Lapps. In later ages history records how the Huns, 
the Bulgarians, and the Magyars have poured into Europe, 
spreading terror and destruction in their path.^ These invaders 
were followed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the 
even more terrible Mongols and Ottoman Turks. Their inroads 
might well be described as Asia's reply to the crusades, as an 
Asiatic counter-attack upon Europe. 

The Mongols, who have given their name to the entire race 
of yellow-skinned peoples, now chiefly occupy the high plateau 
bounded on the north by Siberia, on the south by 

Mongolia 

China, on the east by Manchuria, and on the west 
by Turkestan. 2 Although the greater part of this area consists 
of the Gobi desert, there are many oases and pastures available 
at different seasons of the year to the inhabitants. Hence the 
principal occupation of the Mongols has always been cattle 
breeding, and their horses, oxen, sheep, arid camels have always 
furnished them with food and clothing. 

Like most nomads the Mongols dwell in tents, each family 
often by itself. Severe simplicity is the rule of life, for property 
consists of httle more than one's flocks and herds, clothes, and 
weapons. The modern Mongols are a peaceable, kindly folk, 

1 See pages 241, 247, 314, 316, 334. 

2 Mongolia has long been a part of the Chinese Empire, but in 191 2 A.D., when 
China became a repubUc, MongoUa declared its independence. 

483 



* 4^4 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks 



who have adopted from Tibet a debased form of Buddhism, 
Mongol life but the Mongols of the thirteenth century in 
and character religion and morals were scarcely above the level 
of American Indians. To ruthless cruelty and passion for 




Hut-wagon or the Mongols (Reconstruction) 

On the wagon was placed a sort of hut or pavilion made of wands bound together with 
narrow thongs. The structure was then covered with felt or cloth and provided with 
latticed windows. Hut-wagons, being very light, were sometimes of enormous size. 



plunder they added an efficiency in warfare which enabled them, 
within fifty years, to overrun much of Asia and the eastern part 
of Europe. 

The daily life of the Mongols was a training school for war. 
Constant practice in riding, scouting, and the use of arms made 
Military every man a soldier. The words with which an 
prowess of ancient Greek historian described the savage 
the Mongols g^^y^j^jg^j^g apphed perfectly to the Mongols: 
"Having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their dwellings 
with them wherever they go; accustomed, moreover, one and 
all, to shoot from horseback; and living not by husbandry but 
on their cattle, their wagons the only houses that they possess, 
how can they fail of being irresistible? " ^ 

176. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 A.D. 

For ages the Mongols had dwelt in scattered tribes throughout 
their Asiatic wilderness, engaged in petty struggles with one 

1 Herodotus, iv, 46. 



Conquests of the Mongols 485 



another for cattle and pasture lands. It was the celebrated 
Jenghiz Khan,^ chief of one of the tribes, who jenghiz 
brought them all under his authority and then led 
them to the conquest of the world. Of him it may be said 
with truth that he had the most victorious of military careers, 
and that he constructed the most extensive empire known to 
history. If Jenghiz had possessed the ability of a statesman, 
he would have taken a place by the side of Alexander the 
Great and Julius Caesar. 

Jenghiz first sent the Mongol armies, which contained many 
Turkish alHes, over the Great Wall ^ and into the fertile plains 
of China. All the northern hah of the country Mongol 
was quickly overrun. Then Jenghiz turned west- j^g^^fz^^^' 
ward and invaded Turkestan and Persia. Seven 1206-1227 
centuries have not sufiiced to repair the damage 
which the Mongols wrought in this once-prosperous land. The 
great cities of Bokhara, Samarkand, Merv, and Herat,^ long 
centers of Moslem culture, were pillaged and burned, and their 
inhabitants were put to the sword. Like the Huns the Mongols 
seemed a scourge sent by God. Still further conquests enlarged 
the empire, which at the death of Jenghiz in 1227 a.d. stretched 
from the Dnieper River to the China Sea. 

The Mongol dominions in the thirteenth century were in- 
creased by the addition of Korea, southern China, and Meso- 
potamia, as well as the greater part of Asia Minor Mongol 

and Russia. Japan, indeed, repulsed the Mongol Empire 
11 1 11 . r A . 1 u^der the 

hordes, but at the other extremity of Asia they successors 

captured Bagdad, sacked the city, and brought of Jenghiz 

the caliphate to an end.^ The Mongol realm was very loosely 

organized, however, and during the fourteenth century it fell 

apart into a number of independent states, or khanates. 

It was reserved for another renowned Oriental monarch, 

Timur the Lame,^ to restore the empire of Jenghiz Khan. His 

1 "The Very Mighty King." 

2 See page 20. 

* For the location of these cities see the map on page 486. 

* See page 381. 

6 Commonly known as Tamerlane. 



The Mongols in China and India 487 



Timur the 
Lame, died 
1405 A.D. 



biographers traced his descent from that famous Mongol, but 
Timur was a Turk and 
an adherent 
of Islam. 
He has come 

down to us as perhaps 
the most terrible person- 
ification in history of 
the evil spirit of con- 
quest. Such distant re- 
gions as India, Syria, 
Armenia, Asia Minor, 
and Russia were trav- 
ersed by Timur's sol- 
diers, who left behind 
them only the smoking 
ruins of a thousand cities 
and abominable trophies 
in the shape of columns 
or pyramids of human 
heads. Timur died in 
his seventieth year, while 
leading his troops against 
China, and the exten- 
sive empire which he 
had built up in Asia soon 
crumbled to pieces. 




Tomb op Timur at Samarkand 

Samarkand in Russian Central Asia became 
Timur's capital in i36g a.d. The city was once a 
center of Mohammedan wealth and culture, famous 
for its beautiful mosques, palaces, and colleges. The 
Gur-Amir, or tomb of Timur, consists of a chapel, 
crowned by a dome and enclosed by a wall. Time 
and earthquakes have greatly injured this fine build- 
ing. The remains of Timur lie here under a huge 
block of jade. 



177. The Mongols in China and India 

The Mongols ruled over China for about one hundred and 
fifty years. During this period they became thoroughly imbued 
with Chinese culture. " China," said an old writer, Mongol sway 
"is a sea that salts all the rivers flowing into it." in China 
The most eminent of the Mongol emperors was Jenghiz Khan's 
grandson, Kublai (12 59-1 294 a.d.). He built a new capital, 
which in medieval times was known as Cambaluc and is now 
called Peking. While Kublai was on the throne, the Venetian 



488 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks 



traveler, Marco Polo/ visited China, and he describes in glowing 
colors the virtues and glories of the ''Great Khan." There 
appears to have been considerable trade between Europe and 
China at this time, and Franciscan missionaries and papal 
legates penetrated to the remote East. After the downfall of 
the Mongol dynasty in 1368 a.d. China again shut her doors to 
foreign peoples. All intercourse with Europe ceased until 
the arrival of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. ^ 

Northern India, which in earlier ages had witnessed the coming 
of Persian, Macedonian, and Arabian conquerors, did not escape 
Timurand visitations by fresh Asiatic hordes. Timur the 
Baber Lame, at the head of an innumerable host, rushed 

in India down upon the banks of the Indus and the Ganges 
and sacked Delhi, making there a full display of his unrivaled 
ferocity. Timur's invasion left no permanent impress on the 
history of India, but its memory fired the imagination of another 
Turkish chieftain, Baber, a remote descendant of Timur. In 
1525 A.D. he invaded India and speedily made himself master of 
the northern part of the country. 

The empire which Baber established in India is known as 
that of the Moguls, an Arabic form of the word Mongol. The 
Empire of Moguls, however, were Turkish in blood and 
the Moguls Mohammedans in religion. The Mogul emperors 
reigned in great splendor from their capitals at Delhi and Agra, 
until the dechne of their power in the eighteenth century opened 
the way for the British conquest of India. 

178. The Mongols in Eastern Europe 

The location of Russia^ on the border of Asia exposed that 
country to the full force of the Mongol attack. Jenghiz Khan's 
^ J successors, entering Europe north of the Caspian, 
conquest of swept resistlessly over the Russian plain. Mos- 
R^ssi^i237- (.Q^ Kiev fell in quick succession, and before 
long the greater part of Russia was in the hands of 
the Mongols. Wholesale massacres marked their progress. 

No eye remained open to weep for the dead." 

1 See page 616. 2 See page 622. 

3 For the early history of Russia see page 400. 




sr 3 



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Prep 



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The Mongols in Eastern Europe 



489 



Still the invaders pressed on. They devastated Hungary, 
driving the Magyar king in panic flight from his realm. They 



20° SOf 40f 50^ 60° 70° 




40° I^ongitude East 50° from Greenwich 60° 



Russia at the end of the Middle Ages 



overran Poland. At a great battle in Silesia they destroyed 

the knighthood of Germany and fiUed nine sacks invasion of 

with the right ears of slaughtered enemies. The ^p^^nd and 
, 11,, . Hungary by 

European peoples, taken completely by surprise, the Mongols, 

could offer no effective resistance to these Asiatics, ^^^^ 

who combined superiority in numbers with surpassing general- 



490 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks 

ship. Sifice the Arab attack in the eighth century Christen- 
dom had never been in graver peril. But the wave of Mongol 
invasion, which threatened to enguK Europe in barbarism, 
receded as quickly as it came. The Mongols soon abandoned 
Poland and Hungary and retired to their possessions in Russia. 

The ruler of the "Golden Horde," as the western section 
of the Mongol Empire was called, continued to be the lord of 
Tjjg Russia for about two hundred and fifty years. 

«« Golden Russia, throughout this period, was little more 
than a dependency of Asia. The conquered people 
were obliged to pay a heavy tribute and to furnish soldiers for 
the Mongol armies. Their princes, also, became vassals of the 
Great Khan. 

The Mongols, or "Tartars" ^ are usually said to have Oriental- 
ized Russia. It seems clear, however, that they did not inter- 
Mongol ^^^^ ^ith. the language, religion, and laws of their 
influence subjects. The chief result of the Mongol suprem- 
on Russia Russia from western Europe, 

just at the time when England, France, Germany, and Italy 
were emerging from the darkness of the early Middle Ages. 

The invasion of the Mongols proved to be, indirectly, the 
making of the Russian state. Before they came the country 
Rise of was a patchwork of rival, and often warring, prin- 

Muscovy cipaHties. The need of union against the common 
enemy welded them together. The principality of Muscovy, 
so named from the capital city of Moscow, conquered its neigh- 
bors, annexed the important city of Novgorod, whose vast 
possessions stretched from Lapland to the Urals, and finally 
became powerful enough to shake off the Mongol yoke. 

The final deliverance of Russia from the Mongols was accom- 
Reign of plished by Ivan HI, surnamed the Great. This 
Ivan III, jg ^i^Q regarded as the founder of Russian 

the Great, i . r i i i i i • 

1462-1505 autocracy, that is, of a personal, absolute, and arbi- 
trary government. With a view to strengthening 
his claim to be the political heir of the eastern emperors, 

1 The name Tartar (more correctly, Tatar) was originally applied to both Mongol 
and Turkish tribes that entered Russia. There are still over three millions of these 
"Tartars" in the Russian Empire. 

/ 



The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests 491 • 



Ivan married a niece of the last ruler at Constantinople, who in 
1453 A.D. had fallen in the defense of his capital against the 
Ottoman Turks. Henceforth the Russian ruler described him- 
self as "the new Tsar^ Constantine in the new city of Constan- 
tine, Moscow." 

179. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests, 
1227-1453 A.D. 

The first appearance of the Ottoman Turks in history dates 
from 1227 A.D., the year of Jenghiz Khan's death. In that 
year a small Turkish horde, driven westward from Rise of the 
their central Asian homes by the Mongol advance, Ottomans 
settled in Asia Minor. There they enjoyed the protection of 
their kinsmen, the Seljuk Turks, and from them accepted Islam. 
As the Seljuk power dechned, that of the Ottomans rose in its 
stead. About 1300 a.d. their chieftain, Othman,^ declared his 
independence and became the founder of the Ottoman Empire. 

The growth of the Ottoman power was almost as rapid as that 
of the Arabs or of the Mongols. During the first half of the 
fourteenth century they firmly established them- ottoman 
selves in northwestern Asia Minor, along the expansion 
beautiful shores washed by the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, 
and the Dardanelles. The second half of the same century 
found them in Europe, wresting province after province from 
the feeble hands of the eastern emperors. First came the seizure 
of Gallipoh on the Dardanelles, which long remained the prin- 
cipal Turkish naval station. Then followed the capture of 
Adrianople, where in earlier centuries the Visigoths had de- 
stroyed a Roman army.^ By 1400 a.d. all that remained of the 
Roman Empire in the East was Constantinople and a small 
district in the vicinity of that city. 

The Turks owed much of their success to the famous body 
of troops known as Janizaries.^ These were recruited for the 

1 The title Tsar, or Czar, is supposed to be a contraction of the word Caesar. 

2 Whence the name Ottoman applied to this branch of the Turks. 

3 See page 242. 

4 A name derived from the Turkish yeni cheri, "new troops." 



492 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks 



most part from Christian children surrendered by their parents 
The as tribute. The Janizaries received an education 

Janizaries the Moslem faith and careful instruction in 

the use of arms. Their discipline and fanatic zeal made 
them irresistible on the field of battle. 

Constantinople had never recovered from the blow inflicted 

upon it by the free- 
Constanti- booters of 
nopie the Fourth 

besieged ^ , i 

Crusade.^ 

It was isolated from 
western Europe by the 
advance of the Turks. 
Frantic appeals for 
help brought only a 
few ships and men 
from Genoa and 
Venice. When in 1453 
A.D. the sultan Moham- 
med II, commanding 
a large army amply 
supplied with artillery, 
appeared before the 
walls, all men knew that Constantinople was doomed. 

The defense of the city forms one of the most stirring episodes 
in history. The Christians, not more than eight thousand in 
Capture of number, were a mere handful compared to the 
the city Ottoman hordes. Yet they held out for nearly 
two months against every assault. When at length the end drew 
near, the Roman emperor, Constantine Palasologus, a hero 
worthy of the name he bore, went with his followers at midnight 
to Sancta Sophia and there in that solemn fane received a last 
communion. Before sunrise on the following day the Turks 
wxre within the walls. The emperor, refusing to survive the 
city which he could not save, fell in the onrush of the Janizaries. 
Constantinople endured a sack of three days, during which 
1 See page 478. 




Mohammed II 



A medal showing the strong face of the conqueror 
of Constantinople. 



V 



The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe 493 



many works of art, previously spared by the crusaders, were 
destroyed. Mohammed II then made a triumphal entry into 
the city and in Sancta Sophia, now stripped of its crosses, 
images, and other Christian emblems, proclaimed the faith of 
the prophet. And so the "Turkish night," as Slavic poets 
named it, descended on this ancient home of civilization. 

The capture of Constantinople is rightly regarded as an 
epoch-making event. It meant the end, once for all, of the 
empire which had served so long as the rearguard An epoch- 
of Christian civilization, as the bulwark of the ^^^s event 
West against the East. Europe stood aghast at a calamity 
which she had done so little to prevent. The Christian powers 
of the West have been paying dearly, even to our own time, for 
their failure to save New Rome from infidel hands. 

180. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe 

Turkey was now a European state. After the occupation of 
Constantinople the Ottoman territories continued to expand, 
and at the death of Mohammed II they included continued 
what are now Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbia, Albania, Ottoman 
and Greece. Of all the Balkan states only tiny ^^^^^^^ 
Montenegro, protected by mountain ramparts, preserved its 
independence. 

The Turks form a small minority among the inhabitants of 
the Balkans. At the present time there are said to be less than 
one million Turks in southeastern Europe. Even Nattire of 
about Constantinople the Greeks far outnumber Turkish rule 
them. The Turks from the outset have been, not a nation in 
the proper sense of the word, but rather an army of occupation, 
holding dow^n by force their far more numerous Christian 
subjects. 

The people who thus acquired dominion over all southeastern 
Europe had become, even at the middle of the fifteenth century, 
greatly mLxed in blood. Their ancestors were The Turks a 
natives of central Asia, but in Europe they inter- n^^^^d people 
married freely with their Christian captives and with converts 
from Christianity to Islam. So far has this admixture proceeded 



494 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks 




The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe 495 



that the modern Turks are ahaost entirely European in physique. 

The Bulgarians, who came out of Asia to devastate Europe, 
at length turned Christian, adopted a Slavic speech, and entered 
the family of European nations. The Magyars, isolation of 
who followed them, also made their way into the Ttirks 
fellowship of Christendom. Quite the opposite has been the 
case with the Turks. Preserving their Asiatic language and 
Moslem faith, they have remained in southeastern Europe, not 
a transitory scourge, but an abiding oppressor of Christian 
lands. Every century since 1453 a.d. has widened the gulf 
between them and their subjects. 

The isolation of the Turks has prevented them from assim- 
ilating the higher culture of the peoples whom they conquered. 
They have never created anything in science, art, 
hterature, commerce, or industry. Conquest has influence in 

been the Turks' one business in the world, and southeastern 

Europe 

when they ceased conquering their decline set in. 
But it was not till the end of the seventeenth century that the 
Turkish Empire entered on that downward road which is now 
fast leading to its extinction as a European power. 

Studies 

I. Locate these cities: Bokhara; Samarkand; Merv; Herat; Bagdad; Peking; 
Delhi; Kiev; IMoscow; and Adrianople. 2. Who were Baber, Kublai Khan, 
Othman, Mohammed II, Constantine Palasologus, and Ivan the Great? 3. Why- 
should the steppes of central and northern Asia have been a nursery of warlike 
peoples? 4. What parts of Asia were not included in the Mongol Empire at its 
greatest extent? 5. Trace on the map on page 486 the further expansion of the 
Mongol Empire after the death of Jenghiz Khan. 6. "Scratch a Russian and you 
will find a Tartar." What does this mean? 7. Why did the Mongol conquest of 
Russia tend to strengthen the sentiment of nationaUty in the Russian people? 
8. How did the tsars come to regard themselves as the successors of the Eastern 
emperors? 9. Compare the Janizaries with the Christian miUtary-reUgious orders. 

10. How was "the victory of the Crescent secured by the children of the Cross"? 

1 1 . Why were the invasions of the Mongols and Ottoman Turks more destructive 
to civiUzation than those of the .Germans, the Arabs, and the Northmen? 

12. Enumerate the more important services of the Roman Empire in the East 
to civihzation. 13. On an outline map indicate the extent of the Ottoman Empire 
in 1453 A.D. 



CHAPTER XXII 



EUROPEAN NATIONS DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES^ 

181. Growth of the Nations 

The map of western Europe, that is, of Europe west of the 
great Russian plain and the Balkan peninsula, shows this part 
The new of the continent at present divided into no less 
nationalism ^^^^^ thirteen separate and independent nations. 
Most of them arose during the latter part of the Middle Ages. 
They have existed so long that we now think of the national 
state as the highest type of human association, forgetting that 
it has been preceded by other forms of political organization, 
such as the Greek republic, the Roman Empire, and the feudal 
state, and that it may be followed some day by an international 
or universal state composed of all civilized peoples. 

These national states were the successors of feudahsm. The 
establishment of the feudal system in any country meant, as 
The national been seen, its division into numerous small 

state and communities, each with a law court, treasury, and 
feudalism army. This system of local government helped 
to keep order in an age of confusion, but it did not meet the 
needs of a progressive society. In most parts of Europe the 
feudal states gradually gave way to centralized governments 
ruled by despotic kings. 

A feudal king was often little more than a figurehead, equaled, 
or perhaps surpassed, in power by some of his own vassals. But 
The new in England, France, Spain, and other countries a 
monarchies series of astute and energetic sovereigns were able 
to strengthen their authority at the expense of the nobles. 
They formed permanent armies by insisting that all military 
service should be rendered to themselves and not to the feudal 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xiv, "St. Louis"; 
chapter xv, "Episodes of the Hundred Years' War"; chapter xvi, "Memoirs of a 
French Courtier." 

496 



England under William the Conqueror 497 



lords. They got into their own hands the administration of 
justice. They developed a revenue system, with the taxes 
collected by royal officers and deposited in the royal treasury. 
The kings thus succeeded in creating in each country one 
power which all the inhabitants feared, respected, and 
obeyed. 

A national state in modern times is keenly conscious of its 
separate existence. All its people usually speak the same 
language and have for their "fatherland" the xhe senti- 
warmest feehngs of patriotic devotion. In the ment of 
Middle Ages, however, patriotism was commonly ^^*^°^^*y 
confounded with loyalty to the sovereign, while the differences 
between nations were obscured by the existence of an inter- 
national Church and by the use of Latin as the common language 
of all cultivated persons. The sentiment of nationahty arose 
earlier in England than on the Continent, partly owing to the 
insular position of that country, but nowhere did it become 
a very strong influence before the end of the fifteenth century. 

182. England under William the Conqueror, 
1066-1087 A.D.; the Norman Kingship 

The Normans were the last invaders of England. Since 
1066 A.D. the English Channel, not more than twenty-one 
miles wide between Dover and Calais, has formed ^j^^ j^g^ 
a watery barrier against Continental domination, invasion 
The Enghsh people, for eight and a hah centuries, ^^^gland 
have been free to develop their ideals, customs, and methods of 
government in their own way. We shall now learn how they 
established a strong monarchy and at the same time laid deep 
ani firm the foundations of constitutional liberty. 

William the Conqueror had won England by force of arms. 
He ruled it as a despot. Those who resisted him he treated 
as rebels, confiscating their land and giving it to William's 
Norman followers. To prevent uprisings he built despotic rule 
a castle in every important town and garrisoned it with his own 
soldiers. The Tower of London still stands as an impressive 
memorial of the days of the Conquest. But William did not 



498 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



rely on force alone. He sought with success to attach the 
English to himself by retaining most of their old customs and 
by giving them an enlightened administration of the law. 
"Good peace he made in this land," said the old Anglo-Saxon 
chronicler, ''so that a man might travel over the kingdom with 



vent its introduction into England. William established the 
principle that a vassal owed his first duty to the king and 
not to his immediate lord. If a noble rebelled and his men 
followed him, they were to be treated as traitors. Rebellion 
proved to be an especially difhcult matter in England, since 
the estates which a great lord possessed were not all in any 
one place but were scattered about the kingdom. A noble 
who planned to revolt could be put down before he was 
able to collect his retainers from the most distant parts of 
the country. 




his bosom full of gold 
without molestation, 
and no man durst 
kill another, however 
great the injury he 
might have received 
from him." 



Forms part of the Tower of London. Built by 
William the Conqueror. 



The "White Tower" 



The feudal system 
on the Continent 
permitted a powerful 
WilUamand noble tO 
feudalism gather 

his vassals and make 
war on the king, 
whenever he chose to 
do so. William had 
been familiar with 
this evil side of feu- 
dalism, both in France 
and in his own duchy 
of Normandy, and he 
determined to pre- 



Royal Justice and the Common Law 



499 



The extent of Wilham's authority is illustrated by the survey 
which he caused to have made of the taxable property of the 
kingdom. Royal commissioners went throughout Domesday 
the length and breadth of England to find out how Book, 
much farm land there was in every county, how ^^^^ 
many landowners there were, and what each man possessed, 
to the last ox or cow or pig. The reports were set down in the 
famous Domesday Book, perhaps so called because one could 

■rm adcm-AKlS^/ C:*/cvair* mellif* Umtah Figaro 
pJLeo ^ can^l^ altifaicl>jw-lA ^ita/T rebuilt' oiTiCe^^* 

A Passage from Domesday Book 

Beginning of the entry for Oxford. The handwriting is the beautiful Carolingian 
minuscule which the Norman Conquest introduced into England. The two volumes 
of this compilation and the chest in which they were formerly preserved may be seen 
in the PubUc Record Office, London. 

no more appeal from it than from the Last Judgment. A 
similar census of population and property had never before 
been taken in the Middle Ages. 

Almost at the close of his reign William is said to have sum- 
moned all the landowning men in England to a great meeting 
on Sahsbury Plain. They assembled there to xhe Salisbury 
the number, as it is reported, of sixty thousand Oath, 
and promised "that they would be faithful to 
him against all other men." The Sahsbury Oath was a 
national act of homage and allegiance to the king. 

183. England under Henry II, 1154-1189 A.D.; 
Royal Justice and the Common Law 

Henry II, who ascended the English throne in 1154 a.d., was 
a grandson of William the Conqueror and the first of the famous 



500 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 

Plantagenet ^ family. Henry spent more than half of his 
Henry II, reign abroad, looking after his extensive posses- 
Plantagenet gjQj^g France, but this fact did not prevent him 
from giving England good government. Three things in which 
all Englishmen take special pride — the courts, the jury sys- 
tem, and the Common law — began to take shape during 
Henry's reign. 

Henry, first of all, developed the royal court of justice. 
This had been, at first, simply the court of the king's chief 
The king's vassals, corresponding to the local feudal courts. ^ 
court Henry transformed it from an occasional assembly 

of warlike nobles into a regular body of trained lawyers, and at 
the same time opened its doors to all except serfs. In the 
king's court any freeman could find a justice that was cheaper 
and speedier than that dispensed by the feudal lords. The 
higher courts of England have sprung from this institution. 

Henry also took measures to bring the king's justice directly 
to the people. He sent members of the royal court on circuit 
Circuit throughout the kingdom. At least once a year a 

judges judge was to hold an assembly in each county and 

try such cases as were brought before him. This system of cir- 
cuit judges helped to make the law uniform in all parts of 
England. 

The king's court owed much of its popularity to the fact that 
it employed a better form of trying cases than the old ordeal, 
Trial by oath-swearing, or judicial duel. Henry introduced 
♦* petty jury " ^ method of jury trial which had long been in use 
in Normandy. When a case came before the king's judges on 
circuit, they were to select twelve knights, usually neighbors of 
the parties engaged in the dispute, to make an investigation 
and give a "verdict" ^ as to which side was in the right. These 
selected men bore the name of "jurors,"^ because they swore to 

1 The name comes from that of the broom plant (Latin planta genesta), a sprig 
of which Henry's father used to wear in his hat. The family is also called Angevin, 
because Henry on his father's side descended from the counts of Anjou in France. 

2 See page 419. 

3 Latin verum dictum, "a true statement." 
* Latin ywro, "I take an oath." 



502 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



tell the truth. In Henry's time this method of securing justice 
apphed only to civil cases, that is, to cases affecting land and 
other forms of property, but later it was extended to persons 
charged with criminal offenses. Thus arose the ''petty jury," 
an institution which nearly all European peoples have borrowed 
from England. 

Another of Henry's innovations developed into the ''grand 
jury." Before his time many offenders went unpunished, 
Accusation especially if they were so powerful that no 
by the private individual dared accuse them. Henry 

grand jury pj-Qyided that when the king's justices came to a 
county court a number of selected men should be put upon 
their oath and required to give the names of any persons whom 
they knew or believed to be guilty of crimes. Such persons 
were then to be arrested and tried. This "grand jury," as it 
came to be called, thus had the public duty of making accusa- 
tions, whether its members felt any personal interest in the 
matter or not. 

The decisions handed down by the legal experts who com- 
posed the royal court formed the basis of the English system of 
The jurisprudence. It received the name Common 

Common law i^^^ because it grew out of such customs as were 
common to the realm, as distinguished from those which were 
merely local. This law, from Henry's II's time, became so 
widespread and so firmly established that it could not be 
supplanted by the Roman law followed on the Continent. 
Carried by English colonists across the seas, it has now come 
to prevail throughout a great part of the world. 

184. The Great Charter, 1215 A.D. 

The great Henry, from whose legal reforms English-speaking 
peoples receive benefit even to-day, was followed by his son, 
Richard I Richard, the Lion-hearted crusader.^ After a 
and John, short reign Richard was succeeded by his brother, 
1189-1216 John, a man so cruel, tyrannical, and wicked that 
he is usually regarded as the worst of Enghsh 
kings. In a war with the French ruler, Philip Augustus, John 

1 See pages 475-476. 



504 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



lost Normandy and some of the other English possessions on 
the Continent.^ In a dispute with Innocent III he ended by 
making an abject submission to the Papacy Finally, his 
oppressive government provoked a revolt and extorted from 
him the famous charter of privileges known as Magna Carta. 

Extract from the Great Charter 

Facsimile of the opening lines. Four copies of Magna Carta, sealed with the great 
seal of King John, as well as several unsealed copies, are in existence. The British 
Museum possesses two of the sealed copies; the other two belong to the cathedrals of 
Lincoln and Salisbury, respectively. 

The Norman Conquest had made the king so strong that his 

authority could be resisted only by a union of all classes of the 

. ^ people. The feudal lords were obliged to unite 
Wiiming of ^ . ^ ^ 

Magna with the clergy and the commons,^ in order to 

T^ s^^^ t^^i^ honor, their estates, and their heads. 

1215 A.D. ... 

Matters came to a crisis m 12 15 a.d., when the 
nobles, supported by the archbishop of Canterbury, placed 
their demands for reform in writing before the king. John 
swore furiously that they were ''idle dreams without a shadow 
of reason" and refused to make any concessions. Thereupon 
the nobles formed the "army of God and the Holy Church," 
as it was called, and occupied London, thus ranging the towns- 
people on their side. Deserted by all except the hired troops 
which he had brought from the Continent, John was compelled 

1 See page 514. 2 See page 461. 

3 A term which refers to all freemen in town and coimtry below the rank of 
nobles. 



Parliament during the Thirteenth Century 505 



to yield. At Runnimede on the Thames, not far from Windsor, 
he set his seal to the Great Charter. 

Magna Carta does not profess to be a charter of liberties for 
all Englishmen. Most of its sixty-three clauses merely guaran- 
tee to each member of the coalition against John character 
— nobles, clergy, and commons — those special of Magna 
privileges which the Norman rulers had tried to 
take away. Very little is said in this long document about the 
serfs, who composed probably five-sixths of the population of 
England in the thirteenth century. 

But there are three clauses of Magna Carta which came to 
have a most important part in the history of English freedom. 
The first declared that no taxes were to be levied significance 
on the nobles — besides the three recognized of Magna 
feudal aids ^ — except by consent of the Great 
Council of the realm. ^ By this clause the nobles compelled the 
king to secure their consent before imposing any taxation. The 
second set forth that no one was to be arrested, imprisoned, or 
punished in any way, except after a trial by his equals and in 
accordance with the law of the land. The third said simply 
that to no one should justice be sold, denied, or delayed. These 
last two clauses contained the germ of great legal principles 
on which 'the English people relied for protection against 
despotic kings. They form a part of our American inherit- 
ance from England and have passed into the laws of all our 
states. 

185. Parliament during the Thirteenth Century 

The thirteenth century, which opened so auspiciously with 
the winning of the Great Charter, is also memorable Henry III 
as the time when England developed her Parlia- 1216-1272 
ment ^ into something like its present form. The 
first steps in parliamentary government were taken during 
the reign of John's son, Henry III. 

1 See page 418. 2 Made up of the chief lords and bishops. 

3 The word "parliament," from French parler, "to speak," originally meant a 
talk or conference. Later, the word came to be applied to the body of persons 
assembled for conference. 



5o6 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



It had long been the custom in England that in all important 
matters a ruler ought not to act without the advice and con- 
TheWite- ^^^^ leading men. The Anglo-Saxon kings 

nagemot and sought the advice and consent of their Witenage- 
CotmcU^* mot,^ a body of nobles, royal officers, bishops, 
and abbots. It approved laws, served as a court 
of final appeal, elected a new monarch, and at times deposed 
him. The Witenagemot did not disappear after the Norman 
Conquest. Under the name of the Great Council it continued 
to meet from time to time for consultation with the king. This 
assembly was now to be transformed from a feudal body into a 
parliament representing the entire nation. 

The Great Council, which by one of the provisions of Magna 
Carta had been required to give its consent to the levying of 
Simon de feudal dues, met quite frequently during Henry 
Montfort's HI's reign. On one occasion, when Henry was 
SgsTd^*' urgent need of money and the bishops and lords 
refused to grant it, the king took the significant 
step of calling to the council two knights from each county to 
declare what aid they would give him. These knights, so ran 
Henry's summons, were to come ''in the stead of each and all," 
in other words, they were to act as representatives of the coun- 
ties. Then in 1265 a.d., when the nobles were at war with the 
king, a second and even more significant step was taken. Their 
leader, Simon de Montfort, summoned to the council not only 
two knights from each county, but also two citizens from each 
of the more important towns. 

The custom of selecting certain men to act in the name 
and on the behalf of the community had existed during Anglo- 
Therepre- Saxon times in local government. Representa- 
sentative tives of the counties had been employed by the 
system Norman kings to act as assessors in levying taxes. 

As we have just learned, the ''juries" of Henry II also consisted 
of such representatives. The English people, in fact, were quite 
famihar with the idea of representation long before it was 
apphed on a larger scale to Parliament. 

1 See page 407 and note i. 



Expansion of England under Edward I 507 



Simon de Montfort's Parliament included only his own sup- 
porters, and hence was not a truly national body. But it made 
a precedent for the future. Thirty years later uj^o^jgj 
Edward I called together at Westminster, now a Parliament" 

part of London, a Parliament which included all 2^ Edward I, 
. r . . 1 1295 A.D. 

classes of the people. Here were present arch- 
bishops, bishops, and abbots, earls and barons, two knights 
from every county, and two townsmen to represent each town 
in that county. After this time all these classes were regularly 
summoned to meet in assembly at Westminster. 

The separation of Parliament into two chambers came in 

the fourteenth century. The House of Lords „ 

House of 

included the nobles and higher clergy, the House Lords and 

of Commons, the representatives from counties House of 
1 . . n-M • 1 • 1 . • Commons 

and cities. This bicameral arrangement, as it is 

called, has been followed in the parliaments of most modern 

countries. 

The early English Parliament was not a law-making but a 
tax-voting body. The king would call the two houses in session 
only when he needed their sanction for raising Powers of 
money. Parliament in its turn would refuse to Parliament 
grant supplies until the king had corrected abuses in the admin- 
istration or had removed unpopular officials. This control 
of the public purse in time enabled Parliament to grasp other 
powers. It became an accepted principle that royal officials 
were responsible tOiParliament for their actions, that the king 
himself might be deposed for good cause, and that bills, when 
passed by Parliament and signed by the king, were the law of 
the land. England thus worked out in the Middle Ages a 
system of parliamentary government which nearly all civilized 
nations have held worthy of imitation. 

186. Expansion of England under Edward I, 
1272-1307 A.D. 

Our narrative has been confined until now to England, which 
forms, together with Wales and Scotland, the island known as 
Great Britain. Ireland is the only other important division of 



5o8 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



the United Kingdom. It was almost inevitable that in process 
The of time the British Isles should have come under 

British Isles ^ gjj^gig government, but pohtical unity has not 
yet fused Enghsh, Scotch, Welsh, and Irish into a single 
people. 

The conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons drove many of 
Wales Welsh,^ as the invaders called the Britons, 

into the western part of the island. This district, 
henceforth known as Wales, was one of the last strongholds of 

the Celts. Even to-day a vari- 
ety of the old Celtic language, 
called Cymric, is still spoken by 
the Welsh people. 

In their wild and mountain- 
ous country the Welsh long 
resisted all attempts to subju- 
Conquest gate them. Harold 
of Wales exerted some au- 
thority over Wales, WiUiam 
the Conqueror entered part of 
it, and Henry II induced the 
local rulers to acknowledge him 
as overlord, but it was Edward 

I who first brought all Wales 
Coronation Chair, Westminster , ^ , ^ . , 

Abbey under English sway. Edward 

Every English ruler since Edward I has fostcrcd the buildiug of tOWUS 

been crowned in this oak chair. Under the J^^g j^g^ pOSSCSSioU, divided 

seat is the "Stone of Scone," said to have . . 

been once used by the patriarch Jacob, it mtO COUUtriCS Or shirCS, after 

Edward I brought it to London in 1 291 A.D, ^j^g systcm that prevailed in 

as a token of the subjection of Scotland. ^ , . 

England, and mtroduced the 
Common law. He called his son, Edward II, who was born 
in the country, the "Prince of Wales," and this title has ever 
since been borne by the heir apparent to the English throne. 
The work of uniting Wales to England went on slowly, and 
two centuries elapsed before Wales was granted representation 
in the House of Commons. 




1 See page 319. 



Expansion of England under Edward I 509 



Scotland derives its name from the Scots, who came over from 
Ireland early in the fifth century.^ The northern Highlands, 



420 




6 Longitude West 4 from Greenwich 2 



KEIfRS.E-NCRS.. BOSTON 

a nest of rugged mountains washed by cold and stormy seas, 
have always been occupied in historic times by a g^^^j^^j 
Celtic-speaking people, whose language, called 
Gaelic, is not yet extinct there. This part of Scotland, like 
Wales, was a home of freedom. The Romans did not attempt 
to annex the Highlands, and the Anglo-Saxons and Danes never 



1 See page 246. 



5IO Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



penetrated their fastnesses. On the other hand the southern 
Lowlands, which include only about one-third of Scotland, 
were subdued by the Teutonic invaders, and so this district 
became thoroughly Enghsh in language and culture.^ 

One might suppose that the Lowlands, geographically only 

an extension of northern 
The Scottish England and 
^gdom inhabited by 
an English-speaking 
people, would have early 
united with the southern 
kingdom. But matters 
turned out otherwise. 
The Lowlands and the 
Highlands came together 
under a line of Celtic 
kings, who fixed their resi- 
dence at Edinburgh and 
long maintained their in- 
dependence. 

Edward I, having con- 
quered Wales, took ad- 
Scotiand vantage of 

annexed by the disturbed 
Edward I j • • 

cond itions 

which prevailed in Scot- 
land to interfere in the 
affairs of that country. The Scotch offered a brave but futile 
resistance under WiUiam Wallace. This heroic leader, who 
held out after most of his countrymen submitted, was finally 
captured and executed. His head, according to the barbarous 
practice of the time, was set upon a pole on London Bridge. 
The English king now annexed Scotland without further 
opposition. 

But Wilham Wallace by his life and still more by his death 
had lit a fire which might never be quenched. Soon the Scotch 

1 See the map, page 321. 




A Queen Eleanor Cross 

After the death of his wife Eleanor, Edward I 
caused a memorial cross to be set up at each place 
•where her funeral procession had stopped on its way 
to London. There were originally seven crosses. 
Of the three that still exist, the Geddington cross is 
the best preserved. It consists of three stories and 
stands on a platform of eight steps. 



Unification of France 



found another champion in the person of Robert Bruce. 

Edward I, now old and broken, marched against „ , „ 

' nil Robert Bruce 

him, but died before reaching the border. The and Ban- 
weakness of his son, Edward II, permitted the 
Scotch, ably led by Bruce, to win the signal vic- 
tory of Bannockburn, near Stirling Castle. Here the Scottish 
spearmen drove the English knighthood into ignominious flight 
and freed their country from its foreign overlords. 

The battle of Bannockburn made a nation. A few years 
afterwards the English formally recognized the independence 
of the northern kingdom. So the great design of Scottish 
Edward I to unite all the peoples of Britain under independence 
one government had to be postponed for centuries.^ 

No one kingdom ever arose in Ireland out of the numerous 
tribes into which the Celtic-speaking inhabitants were divided. 
The island was not troubled, however, by foreign j^.^^^^^^ 
invaders till the coming of the Northmen in the 
ninth century. ^ The English, who first entered Ireland during 
the reign of Henry II, did not complete its conquest till the 
seventeenth century. Ireland by its situation could scarcely 
fail to become an appanage of Great Britain, but the dividing 
sea has combined with differences in race, language, and religion, 
and with English misgovernment, to prevent anything like a 
genuine union of the conquerors and the conquered. 

187. Unification of France, 987-1328 A.D. 

Nature seems to have intended that France should play a 
leading part in European affairs. The geographical unity of 
the country is obvious. Mountains and seas Physical 
form its permanent boundaries, except on the north- ^^^^e 
east where the frontier is not well defined. The western coast 
of France opens on the Atlantic, now the greatest highway of 
the world's commerce, while on the southeast France touches 
the Mediterranean, the home of classical civilization. This 

1 In 1603 A.D. James VI of Scotland ascended the throne of England as James I. 
In 1707 A.D. the two countries adopted a plan of union which gave them a common 
Parliament and one flag. 2 See page 397. 



512 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



intermediate position between two seas helps us to understand 
why French history should form, as it were, a connecting link 
between ancient and modern times. 

But the greatness of France has been due, also, to the quahties 
of the French people. Many racial elements have contributed 
Racial to the population. The blood of prehistoric 

France tribes, whose monuments and grave mounds are 

scattered over the land, still flows in the veins of Frenchmen. 
At the opening of historic times France was chiefly occupied 
by the Celts, whom Julius Caesar found there and subdued. 
The Celts, or Gauls, have formed in later ages the main stock 
of the French nation, but their language gave place to Latin 
after the Roman conquest. In the course of five hundred years 
the Gauls were so thoroughly Romanized that they may best be 
described as Gallo-Romans. The Burgundians, Franks, and 
Northmen afterwards added a Teutonic element to the pop- 
ulation, as well as some infusion of Teutonic laws and 
customs. 

France, again, became a great nation because of the greatness 
of its rulers. Hugh Capet, who became the French king in 
^j^g 987 A.D.,1 was fortunate in his descendants. The 

Capetian Capetian dynasty was long lived, and for more 
dynasty ^j^^^ three centuries son followed father on the 
throne without a break in the succession. ^ During this time 
the French sovereigns worked steadily to exalt the royal power 
and to unite the feudal states of medieval France into a real 
nation under a common government. Their success in this 
task made them, at the close of the Middle Ages, the strongest 
monarchs in Europe. 

Hugh Capet's duchy — the original France — included only 
France and a small stretch of inland country centering about 
Its fiefs Paris on the Seine and Orleans on the Loire. His 
election to the kingship did not increase his power over the 
great lords who ruled in Normandy, Brittany, Aquitaine, 



1 See page 403. 

2 From 987 A.D. to 1328 a.d. France had only fourteen kings. The average 
length of their reigns was, therefore, something more than twenty -four years. 



Unification of France 



513 



Burgundy, and other parts of the country. They did homage 
to the king for their fiefs and performed the usual feudal services, 




Unification of France during the Middle Ages 



but otherwise regarded themselves as independent in their 
own territories. 

The most considerable additions to the royal domains were 
made by Philip II, called Augustus. We have already referred 
to his contest with Pope Innocent III and to his participation 



514 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



in the Third Crusade.^ The EngUsh king, John, was Phihp's 
vassal for Normandy and other provinces in France. A 
Philip n quarrel between the two rulers gave Philip an 
Augustus, opportunity to declare John's fiefs forfeited by 
1180-1223 feudal law. Philip then seized all the Enghsh 
possessions north of the river Loire. The loss of 
these possessions abroad had the result of separating England 
almost completely from Continental interests; for France it 
meant a great increase in territory and population. Philip 
made Paris his chief residence, and that city henceforth 
became the capital of France. 

During the long reign of Philip's grandson, Louis IX, rich 
districts to the west of the Rhone were added to the royal 
Louis IX the domains. This king, whose Christian virtues 
Saint, 1226- led to his canonization, distinguished himself as 
1270 A.D. administrator. His work in unifying France 

may be compared with that of Henry II in England. He 
decreed that only the king's money was to circulate in the 
provinces owned directly by himself, thus limiting the right of 
coinage enjoyed by feudal lords. He restricted very greatly 
the right of private war and forbade the use of judicial duels. 
Louis also provided that important cases could be appealed 
from feudal courts to the king's judges, who sat in Paris and 
followed in their decisions the principles of Roman law. In 
these and other ways he laid the foundations of absolute mon- 
archy in France. 

The grandson of St. Louis, Philip IV, did much to organize 
a financial system for France. Now that the kingdom had 
Philip IV the become so large and powerful, the old feudal dues 
Fair, 1285- were insufficient to pay the salaries of the royal 
1314 A.D. officials and support a standing army. Philip 
resorted to new methods of raising revenue by imposing various 
taxes and by requiring the feudal lords to substitute payments 
in money for the military service due from them. 

Philip also called into existence the Estates-General, an 
assembly in which the clergy, the nobles, and representatives 

1 See pages 461, 475. 



The Hundred Years' War 515 



from the commons (the "thhd estate") met as separate 
bodies and voted grants of money. The Estates- The Estates- 
General arose ahnost at the same time as the General 
English Parliament, to which it corresponded, but it never 
secured the extensive authority of that body. After a time 
the kings of France became so powerful that they managed to 
reign without once summoning the nation in council. The 
French did not succeed, as the Enghsh had done, in founding 
pohtical Hberty upon the vote and control of taxation. 

188. The Hundred Years' War between France 
and England, 1337-1453 A.D. 

The task of unifying France was interrupted by a deplorable 
war between that country and Eng- 
land. It continued, including periods 
of truce, for over a cen- Pretext for 
tury. The pretext for the ^® 
war was found in a disputed succes- 
sion. In 1328 A.D. the last of the 
three sons of Philip IV passed away, 
and the direct hne of the house of 
Capet, which had reigned over France 
for more than three hundred years, 
came to an end. The English ruler, 
Edward III, whose mother was the 
daughter of Philip IV, considered him- 
self the next hneal heir. The French 
nobles were naturally unwilling to re- 
ceive a foreigner as king, and gave 
the throne, instead, to a nephew of 
PhiHp IV. This decision was after- 
wards justified on the ground that, 
by the old law of the Sahan Franks, 
women could neither inherit estates nor transmit them to 
a son.^ 

1 Hence the name "Salic law" applied to the rule excluding women from suc- 
cession to the French throne. 




Royal Arms of 
Edward III 



Edward III, having in 1340 
A.D. set up a claim to the throne 
of France, proceeded to add the 
French lilies {fleurs-de-lis) to his 
coat of arms. He also took as 
his motto Dieu et mon Droit 
("God and my Right"). The 
Hlies of France remained in the 
royal arms till 1801 a.d.; the 
motto is still retained. 



5i6 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



Edward III at first accepted the situation. Philip VI, how- 
ever, irritated Edward by constant encroachments on the 
Reasons for territories which the Enghsh still kept in France, 
the war Philip also allied himself with the Scotch and inter- 
fered with EngHsh trade interests in the county of Flanders.^ 
This attitude of hostility provoked retaliation. Edward now 

reasserted his claim to the crown 
of France and prepared by force of 
arms to make it good. 

In 1346 A.D. Edward led his 
troops across the Channel and 
Battles of at Crecy gained a com- 
Cr£cy,i346 plete victory over the 
A.D., and f . ^ , 1 r 
Poitiers, 1356 knighthood of France. 

Ten years later the 
English at Poitiers almost annihi- 
lated another French force much 
superior in numbers. These two 
battles were mainly won by foot 
soldiers armed with the long bow, 
in the use of which the Enghsh 
excelled. Ordinary iron mail could 
not resist the heavy, yard-long 
arrows, which fell with murderous 
effect upon the bodies of men and horses alike. Henceforth 
infantry, when properly armed and led, were to prove them- 
selves on many a bloody field more than a match for feudal 
cavalry. The long bow, followed later by the musket, struck 
a deadly blow at feudalism. 

Edward's son, the Prince of Wales, when only sixteen years 
of age, won his spurs by distinguished conduct at Crecy. It 
The " Black was the " Black Prince," ^ also, who gained the day 
Prince" Poitiers, where he took prisoner the French 

king, John. Toward his royal captive he behaved in chivalrous 




English Archer 

From an old manuscript. 



1 See page 550. 

2 Probably so called from the black armor which he wore. It may still be seen 
above his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral. 



The Hundred Years' War 517 



fashion. At supper, on the evening of the battle, he stood 
behind John's chair and waited on him, praising the king's 
brave deeds. But this "flower of knighthood," who regarded 
warfare as only a tournament on a larger scale, could be ruthless 
in his treatment of the common people. On one occasion he 
caused three thousand inhabitants of a captured town — men, 
women and children — to be butchered before his eyes. The 
incident shows how far apart in the Middle Ages were chivalry 
and humanity. 

The English, in spite of their victories, could not conquer 
France. The French refused to fight more pitched battles and 
retired to their castles and fortified towns. The Renewal of 
war almost ceased for many years after the death 
of Edward III. It began again early in the fifteenth century, 
and the English this time met with more success. They gained 
possession of almost all France north of the Loire, except the 
important city of Orleans. Had the English taken it, French 
resistance must have collapsed. That they did not take it 
was due to one of the most remarkable women in history — 
Joan of Arc} 

Joan was a peasant girl, a native of the little village of Dom- 
remy. Always a devout and imaginative child, she early began 
to see visions of saints and angels and to hear ^j^^ « jyj^^ 
mysterious voices. At the time of the siege of of Orleans," 
Orleans the archangel Michael appeared to her, 
so she declared, and bade her go forth and save France. Joan 
obeyed, and though barely seventeen years of age made her 
way to the court of the French king. There her piety, simplic- 
ity, and evident faith in her mission overcame all doubts. Clad 
in armor, girt with an ancient sword, and with a white banner 
borne before her, Joan was alloAved to accompany an army for 
the relief of Orleans. She inspired the French with such enthu- 
siasm that they quickly compelled the English to raise the siege. 
Then Joan led her king to Reims and stood beside him at his 
coronation in the cathedral. 

Though Joan was soon afterwards captured by the English, 

1 In French, Jeanne d'Arc. 



5i8 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



who, to their lasting dishonor, burned her as a witch, her example 
End of nerved the French to further resistance. The 

the war English gradually lost ground and in 1453 a.d., 
the year of the fall of Constantinople, abandoned the effort to 
conquer a land much larger than their own. They retained of 
the French territories only the port of Calais and the Channel 
Islands.^ 

Few wars have had less to justify them, either in their causes 
or in their consequences, than this long struggle between Eng- 
Effects of land and France. It was a calamity to both lands, 
the war -poY England it meant the dissipation abroad of 
the energies which would have been better employed at home. 
For France it resulted in widespread destruction of property, 
untold suffering, famines, and terrible loss of life. From this 
time dates that traditional hostility between the two countries 
which was to involve them in future conflicts. One beneficial 
effect the war did have. It helped to make the two nations 
conscious of their separate existence. The growth of a national 
feeling, the awakening of a sentiment of patriotism, was es- 
pecially marked in France, which had fought so long for 
independence. 

Shortly after the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War the 
two branches of the English royal family became involved in 
desperate struggle for the crown. It was known as the War of 
England after Roses, because the house of York took as its 
the Hundred badge a white rose and the house of Lancaster, a 
Years' War ^^^^^ ^j^^ contest lasted till 1485 A.D., when 

the Lancastrians conquered, and their leader, Henry Tudor, 
ascended the throne as Henry VII. He married a Yorkist wife, 
thus uniting the two factions, and founded the Tudor dynasty. 
The War of the Roses arrested the progress of Enghsh freedom. 
They created a demand for a strong monarchy which could 
keep order and prevent civil strife between the nobles. The 
Tudors met that demand and ruled as absolute sovereigns. It 
was more than a century before Parliament, representing the 

1 Calais went back to the French in 1558 a.d. The Channel Islands are still 
English possessions. 



Unification of Spain 



519 



people, could begin to win back free government. It did this 

only at the cost of a revolution. 

France also issued from the Hundred Years' War with an 

absolute government. Strengthened by victory over the 

English, the French kings were able to reduce France after 

both the nobihty and the commons to impotence, the Hundred 

Years' War 

During the reign of Louis XI (1461-1483 a.d.) 
the royal domains were enlarged by the addition of Anjou, 
Provence, and the duchy of Burgundy. His son, Charles VIII 
(1483— 1498 A.D.), made Brittany a possession of the French 
crowTL. The unification of France was now almost complete. 

189. Unification of Spain (to 1492 A.D.) 

The Spanish peninsula, known to the Romans as Hispania, 
is sharply separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees 
Mountains. At the same time the nearness of The Spanish 
the peninsula to Africa has always brought it into Peninsula 
intimate relations with that continent. Just as Russia has 
formed a link between Asia and Europe, so Spain has served as 
a natural highway from Africa to Europe. 

The first settlers in Spain, of whom we know anything, were 
the Iberians. They may have emigrated from northern Africa. 
After them came the Celts, who overran a large The Spanish 
part of the peninsula and appear to have mingled People 
with the Iberians, thus forming the mixed people known as 
Celtiberians. In historic times Spain was conquered by the 
Carthaginians, who left few traces of their occupation, by 
the Romans, who thoroughly Romanized the country, by 
the Visigoths, who founded a Germanic kingdom, and lastly 
by the Moors, who introduced Arabian culture and the faith 
of Islam.^ These invaders were not numerous enough greatly 
to affect the population, in which the Celtiberian strain is still 
predominant. 

The Ivloors never wholly conquered a fringe of mountain 
territory in the extreme north of Spain. Here a number of 

1 See pages 164, 169, 244, 378. The Arabs and Berbers who settled in Spain 
are generally called Moors. 



520 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



small Christian states, including Leon, Castile, Navarre, and 
Christian Aragon, came into being. In the west there also 
states of arose the Christian state of Portugal. Geographi- 
cally, Portugal belongs to Spain, from which it is 
separated only by artificial frontiers, but the country has 
usually managed to maintain its independence. 

Acting sometimes singly and sometimes in concert, the 
Christian states fought steadily to enlarge their boundaries at 
Recovery of expense of their Moslem neighbors. The 

Spain from contest had the nature of a crusade, for it was 
the Moors blessed by the pope and supported by the chivalry 
of Europe. Periods of victory alternated with periods of defeat, 
but by the close of the thirteenth century Mohammedan Spain 
had been reduced to the kingdom of Granada at the southern 
extremity of the peninsula. 

The long struggle with the Moors made the Spanish a patri- 
otic people, keenly conscious of their national unity. The 

^.^ achievements of Christian warriors were recited 
The Cid 

in countless ballads, and especially in the fine 
Poem of the Cid. It deals with the exploits of Rodrigo Diaz, 
better known by the title of the Cid (lord) given to him by the 
Moors. The Cid of romance was the embodiment of every 
knightly virtue; the real Cid was a bandit, who fought some- 
times for the Christians, sometimes against them, but always 
in his own interest. The Cid's evil deeds were forgotten, 
however, and after his death in 1099 a.d. he became the national 
hero of Spain. 

Meanwhile the separate Spanish kingdoms were coming 

together to form a nation. Leon and Castile in 1230 a.d. 

combined into the one kingdom of Castile, so 
Union of . ^ . . 

Castile and named because its frontiers bristled with castles 

1479°A D ^.gainst the Moors. But the most important step 
in the making of Spain was the marriage of Ferdi- 
nand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile, leading in 1479 a.d. to 
the union of these two kingdoms. About the same time the 
Castihan language began to crowd out the other Spanish 
dialects and to become the national speech. 



Unification of Spain 



521 



The new sovereigns of Spain aimed to continue the unifica- 
tion of the peninsula by the conquest of Granada. No effort 
was made by the Turks, who shortly before had conquest 
captured Constantinople, to defend this last of Granada, 
stronghold of Islam in the West. The Moors, ^^^^ 
though thrown upon their own resources, made a gallant resist- 
ance. At least once Ferdinand wearied of the struggle^ but 




, Territory added 

At beginning of to the end of loth 
12th Century Century (14921 

Castile ME ™|«: 



Aragon 
Navarre 

The dates are those of Christian Pnrtno-al ' 

o Conquest of Moorish Territory ^orxugaj 



Unification of Spain during the ^Middle Ages 

Isabella's determination never wavered. In 1492 a.d. Granada 
surrendered, and the silver cross of the crusading army was 
raised on the highest tower of the city. Moslem rule in Spain, 
after an existence of almost eight centuries, now came to 
an end. 

Ferdinand and Isabella belong in the front rank of European 
sovereigns. Like their contemporaries, Henry VII and Louis 
XI, they labored with success to build up an abso- j^^^ 
lute monarchy. Spain had found, as England Ferdinand 
and France had found, that feudahsm spelled dis- ^'^^^"^ 
order, and that only a strong central government could keep 



522 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



the peace, repress crime, and foster trade and commerce. Fer- 
dinand and Isabella firmly established the supremacy of the 
crown. By the end of the fifteenth century Spain had become 
a leading European power. Its importance in the councils 
of Europe was soon to be increased by the marriage of a 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella to the heir of the Aus- 
trian house of Hapsburg. 

190. Austria and the Swiss Confederation, 
1273-1499 A.D. 

The name Austria — in German Osterreich — means simply 
the eastern part of any kingdom. It came to be applied par- 
Rise of ticularly to the territory on the Danube east of 
Austria Bavaria, which Otto the Great had formed into 
a mark or border province for defense against the Magyars.^ 
This mark, soon to be known as Austria, gained an important 
place among German states. The frontiers were pushed down 
the Danube valley and the capital was finally located at Vienna, 
once a Roman city. Frederick Barbarossa raised Austria to 
the rank of a duchy. Rudolf of Hapsburg, who became emperor 
in 1273 A.D., first brought the country into the hands of the 
Hapsburg family. ^ 

The Hapsburgs founded the power of the present Austrian 

monarchy. At the end of the fourteenth century their do- 

, , minions included a large part of eastern Germany,^ 
Growth of , . r . f ; -r^ 1 1 1 

Austria reachmg from beyond the Danube southward to 

under the ^j^g Adriatic. Early in the sixteenth century they 
Hapsbtirgs 

secured Bohemia, a Slavic land thrust like a wedge 
into German territory, as well as part of the Magyar land of 
Hungary. The possession of these two kingdoms gave Austria 
its special character of a state formed by the union under one 
ruler of several wholly distinct nations. Meanwhile the right 
of election as Holy Roman Emperor became hereditary in 
the Hapsburg family. 

1 See page 316. 2 See page 462. 

3 The duchies of Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and 
the county of Tyrol., 



Austria and the Swiss Confederation 523 

Switzerland, during the earlier period of the Middle Ages, 

formed a part of the German duchy of Swabia and belonged to 

the Holy Roman Empire.^ About two-thirds of ^ , ^ 
^ . ^ . Switzerland 

the population of Switzerland remam German m 

speech and feeling, though now the country includes districts 




Growth of the Hapsburg Possessions 



in which French or Itahan are spoken. All Swiss laws are still 
proclaimed in the three languages. 

Swiss history is closely bound up with that of Austria. The 
•little mountain communities of Schwyz,^ Uri, and Unterwalden, 
on the shores of beautiful Lake Lucerne, were Switzerland 
possessions of the counts of Hapsburg. In 1291 Austria 
A.D., the year when Rudolf of Hapsburg died, these three "Forest 
Cantons" formed a confederation for resistance to their Haps- 
burg overlords. Additional cantons joined the league, which 
now entered upon a long struggle, dear to all lovers of liberty, 
against Austrian rule. Nowhere did the old methods of feudal 



1 See the map facing page 462. 

2 From Schwyz comes the name Switzerland. 



524 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



warfare break down more conspicuously than in the battles 
gained by Swiss pikemen over the haughty knights of Austria. 
The struggle closed in 1499 a.d., when Switzerland became 
practically a free state. ^ 

Switzerland has two heroes of her war for independence. 




The Swiss Contederation, 1291-1513 a.d. 



WiUiam Tell is a wholly mythical character, for the story of a 
WilUam skillful marksman who succeeds in striking off 
Tell and some small object placed on a child's head is found 
WkJcelr^ed England, Norway, Denmark, and other coun- 

tries. The Swiss have localized it in Uri. Another 
popular hero has a better claim to historical existence. It is 
said that at a critical moment in the battle of Sempach, when 
the Swiss with their short weapons failed to break the Austrian 
ranks, Arnold von Winkelried, a man of Unterwalden, came to 
the rescue. Rushing single-handed upon the enemy, he seized 
all the spears within reach and turned them into his own 
body. He thus opened a gap in the line, through which 
the Swiss pressed on to victory. Winkelried's deed might 

1 The independence of the country was not formally recognized till 1648 a.d. 



Expansion of Germany 



525 



well have been performed, though the evidence for it is 
very scanty. 

Little Switzerland, lying in the heart of the Alps and sur- 
rounded by powerful neighbors, is one of the most interesting 
states in Europe. The twenty-two communities, xhe Swiss 
or cantons, which make up the Swiss Confedera- Confedera- 
tion, differ among themselves in language, reHgion 
(Roman Catholic or Protestant), and customs, according 'to 
their nearness to Germany, France, or Italy. Nevertheless 
the Swiss form a patriotic and united nation. It is remarkable 
that a people whose chief bond of union was common hostility 
to the Austrian Hapsburgs, should have established a federal 
government so strong and enduring. 

191. Expansion of Germany 

An examination of the map shows how deficient Germany is 
in good natural boundaries. The valley of the Danube affords 
an easy road to the southeast, a road which the Lines of 
early rulers of Austria followed as far as Vienna German 
and the Hungarian frontier. Eastward along 
the Baltic no break occurs in the great plain stretching from 
the North Sea to the Ural Mountains. It was in this direction 
that German conquests and colonization during the Middle 
Ages laid the foundation of modern Prussia. 

The Germans, in descending upon the Roman Empire, had 
abandoned much of their former 'territories to the Slavs. In 
the reign of Charlemagne all the region between The German 
the Elbe and the Vistula belonged to Slavic tribes. ^lav 
To win it back for Germany required several centuries of hard 
fighting. The Slavs were heathen and barbarous, so that 
warfare with them seemed to be a kind of crusade. In the 
main, however, German expansion eastward was a business 
venture, due to the need for free land. It was the same need 
which in the nineteenth century carried the frontiers of the 
United States from the Alleghanies to the Pacific. 

German expansion began early in the tenth century, when 
Henry the Fowler annexed Brandenburg between the Elbe 



526 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



and the Oder.^ Subsequently much of the territory between 
Brandenburg Oder and the Vistula, including Pomerania 

and on the southern coast of the Baltic, came under 

German control. The Slavic inhabitants were 
exterminated or reduced to slavery. Their place was taken 
by thousands of German colonists, who introduced Christianity, 
built churches and monasteries, cleared the woods, drained the 
marshes, and founded many cities destined to become centers 
of German trade and culture. 

Between the Vistula and the Niemen lay the lands of the 
Prussians, a non-Teutonic people closely related to the Slavs. 
Prussia '^^^ Prussian language and religion have dis- 
appeared, the Prussians themselves have been 
completely absorbed by the Germans who settled in their coun- 
try, but the Prussian name is borne to-day by one of the great 
states of modern Europe. 

The conquest and conversion of the Prussians was accom- 
plished by the famous order of Teutonic Knights. It had been 
The Teutonic founded in Palestine as a military-religious order, 
^""^^^ at the time of the Third Crusade.^ The decline 

of the crusading movement left the knights with no duties to 
perform, and so they transferred their activities to the Prussian 
frontier, where there was still a chance to engage in a holy war. 
Throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the Teu- 
tonic Order flourished, until its grand master ruled over the 
entire Baltic coast from the Vistula to the gulf of Finland. The 
knights later had to relinquish much of this region to the Slavs, 
but they sowed there the seeds of civilization. Russia's Baltic 
provinces ^ are to-day the richest and most advanced in the 
empire. 

Germany at the close of the Middle Ages was not a united, 
intensely national state, such as had been established in England, 
Political France, and Spain. It had spht into hundreds 
Germany principalities, none large, some extremely small, 

and all practically independent of the feeble German kings.^ 



1 See page 315. 

2 See page 473. 



3 Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia. 

4 See pages 319, 462. 



Expansion of Germany 



527 



This weakness of the central power condemned Germany to a 
minor part in the affairs of Europe, as late as the nineteenth 
century. Yet Germany found some compensation for political 




10° Longitude 15° East from 20 ° Greenwich 25° 



German Expansion Eastward during the Middle Ages 

backwardness in the splendid city hfe which it developed 
during the later Middle Ages. The German cities, together 
with those of Italy and other European lands, now call for 
our attention. 



528 Europe during the Later Middle Ages 



studies 

I. On an outline map indicate (a) William the Conqueror's French dominions 
and (b) additional dominions of the Plantagenet kings in France. 2. Prepare a 
chart showing the leading rulers mentioned in this chapter. Arrange your material 
in parallel columns with dates, one column for England, one for France, and one for 
the other European countries. 3. Locate the following places: Crecy; Calais; 
Poitiers; Salisbury; Stirling; Edinburgh; Orleans; and Granada. 4. What 
happened in 987 a.d.? in 1066 a.d.? in 1215 a.d.? in 1295 a.d.? in 1346 a.d.? 
in 1453 A.D.? in 1485 a.d.? 5. Distinguish between a nation, a government, and 
a state. 6. Are unity of race, a common language, a common religion, and geo- 
graphical unity of themselves sufficient to make a nation? May a nation arise 
where these bonds are lacking? 7. "The thirteenth century gave Europe the 
nations as we now know them." Comment on this statement. 8. Account for 
the rise of national feeling in France, Spain, Scotland, and Switzerland. 9. "Good 
government in the Middle Ages was only another name for a public-spirited and 
powerful monarchy." Comment on this statement. 10. What advantages has 
trial by jury over the older forms of trial, such as oaths, ordeals, and the judicial 
duel? II. Explain the difference between a grand jury and a trial, or petty jury. 
12. Compare the extent of territory in which Roman law now prevails with that 
which follows the Common law. 13. Why was the Parliament of 1295 a.d. named 
the "Model Parhament"? 14. Why has England been called "the mother of 
parUaments"? 15. Distinguish between England and Great Britain. Between 
Great Britain and the United Kingdom. 16. What were the Roman names of 
England, Scotland, and Ireland? 17. "Islands seem dedicated by nature to free- 
dom." How does the history of Ireland illustrate this statement? 18. Trace on 
the map the main water routes in France between the Mediterranean and . the 
Atlantic. 19. Show that Paris occupies an exceptionally good location for a capital 
city. 20. What French kings did most to form the French nation? 21. Why 
have queens never ruled in France? 22. Compare the Hundred Years' War and 
the Peloponnesian War as needless conflicts. 23. Compare Joan of Arc's visions 
with those of Mohammed. 24. "Beyond the Pyrenees begins Africa"." What 
does this statement mean? 25. Why was Spain inconspicuous in European poli- 
tics before the opening of the sixteenth century? 26. Look up in an encyclopedia 
the story of WiUiam Tell and prepare an oral report upon it. 27. Why was the 
German system of elective rulers poHtically less advantageous than the settled 
hereditary succession which prevailed in England and France? 



CHAPTER XXIII 



EUROPEAN CITIES DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 

192. Growth of the Cities 

Civilization has always had its home in the city.^ The state- 
ment apphes as well to medieval times as to the present day. 
Nothing marks more strongly the backwardness The civic 
of the early Middle Ages than the absence of revival 
large and flourishing cities throughout western Europe. The 
growth of trade in the latter Middle Ages led, however, to a civic 
revival beginning in the eleventh century. This change from 
rural to urban life was scarcely less significant for European 
history than the change from the feudal to the national state. 

A number of medieval cities stood on the sites, and even within 
the walls, of Roman municipalities. Particularly in Italy, 
southern France, and Spain, and also in the Rhine q^^q^ of 
and Danube regions, it seems that some ancient Roman 
municipia had never been entirely destroyed during 
the Germanic invasions. They preserved their Roman names, 
their streets, aqueducts, amphitheaters, and churches, and pos- 
sibly vestiges of their Roman institutions. Among them were 
such important centers as Milan, Florence, Venice, Lyons, 
Marseilles, Paris, Vienna, Cologne, London, and York. 

Many medieval cities were new foundations. Some rose to 
importance because of advantages of situation. A place where 
a river could be forded, where two roads met, or origin of 
where a good harbor existed, would naturally 
become the resort of traders. Some, again, started as fortresses, 
behind whose ramparts the peasants took refuge when danger 
threatened. A third group of cities developed from villages on 
the manors. A thriving settlement was pretty sure to arise 

1 The word "city" comes through the French from the Latin cwilitas, meaning 
citizenship, state. The word "town" (from Anglo-Saxon tun), which is now often 
used as a synonym of city, originally meant a village (French mile, Latin villa). 

529 



530 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



near a monastery or castle, which offered both protection and 
employment to the common people. 

The city at first formed part of the feudal system. It grew 
upon the territory of a feudal lord and naturally owed obedience 
The city and to him. The citizens ranked not much higher 
feudaUsm ^j^g^j^ serfs, though they were traders and artisans 
instead of farmers. They enjoyed no political rights, for their 
lord collected the taxes, appointed officials, kept order, and 
punished offenders. In short, the city was not free. 




Walls or Carcassonne 

The fortifications of Carcassonne, an ancient city of southwestern France, are probably 
unique in Europe for completeness and strength. They consist of a double line of ram- 
parts, protected by towers and pierced by only two gates. A part of the fortifications is 
attributed to the Visigoths in the sixth century; the remainder, including the castle, was 
raised during the Middle Ages (eleventh to thirteenth centuries). 

But the city from the first was the decided enemy of feudalism.^ 
As its inhabitants increased in number and wealth, they became 
Revolt of conscious of their strength and refused to submit 
the cities oppression. Sometimes they won their freedom 

by hard fighting; more often they purchased it, perhaps from 
some noble who needed money to go on a crusade. In France, 
England, and Spain, where the royal power was strong, the 
cities obtained exemption from their feudal burdens, but did not 
become entirely self-governing. In Germany and Italy, on 

1 See page 437. 



City Life 531 

the other hand, the weakness of the central - government 
permitted many cities to secure complete independence. They 
became true repubhcs, like the old Greek city-states. ^ 

The contract which the citizens extorted from their lord was 
known as a charter. It specified what taxes they should be 
required to pay and usually granted to them (^j^^^j^^j.^ 
various privileges, such as those of holding assem- 
blies, electing magistrates, and raising mihtia for local defense. 
The revolt of the cities gradually extended over all western 
Europe, so that at the end of the fourteenth century hardly 
any of them lacked a charter. 

The free city had no room for either slaves or serfs. All 
ser\dre conditions ceased inside its walls. The rule prevailed 
that anyone who had hved in a city for the term of civic 
a year and a day could no longer be claimed by a freedom 
lord as his serf. This rule found expression in the famous 
saying: "Town air renders free." 

The freedom of the cities naturally attracted many immi- 
grants to them. There came into existence a middle class of 
city people, between the nobles and clergy on the j^gg 
one side and the peasants on the other side — the "third 
what the French call the bourgeoisie^ As we have 
learned,^ the kings of England and France soon began to sum- 
mon representatives of this middle class to sit in assemblies as 
the "third estate," by the side of the nobles and the clergy, who 
formed the first two estates. Henceforth the middle class, the 
bourgeoisie, the " third estate," distinguished as it was for wealth, 
intelligence, and enterprise, exerted an ever-greater influence 
on European affairs. 

193. City Life 

The visitor approaching a medieval city through miles of 
open fields saw it clear in the sunlight, unobscured by coal 
smoke. From without it looked like a fortress, a city from 
with walls, towers, gateways, drawbridges, and without 
moat. Beyond the fortifications he would see, huddled together 



1 See page 8i. 2 From French hourg, "town." ^ See pages 506, 515. 



532 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



against the sky, the spires of the churches and the cathedral, 
the roofs of the larger houses, and the dark, frowning mass of 
the castle. The general impression would be one of wealth 
and .strength and beauty. 

Once within the walls the visitor would not find things so 
attractive. The streets were narrow, crooked, and ill-paved, 
A city from dark during the day because of the overhanging 
within houses, and without illumination at night. There 

were no open spaces or parks except a small market place. The 




A Scene in Rothenburg 

whole city w^as cramped by its w^alls, which shut out light, air, 
and view, and prevented expansion into the neighboring coun- 
try. Medieval London, for instance, covered an area of less 
than one square mile.^ 

A city in the Middle Ages lacked all sanitary arrangements. 
The only water supply came from polluted streams and w^ells. 
Unsanitary There were no sewers and no sidewalks. People 
conditions piled up their refuse in the backyard or flung it into 
the street, to be devoured by the dogs and pigs which served 

1 The visitor to Chester in England or Rothenburg in Germany finds the old 
ramparts still standing and gains an excellent idea of the cramped quarters of a 
medieval city. Nuremberg in southern Germany is another city which has pre- 
served its medieval monuments. 



City Life 



533 



as scavengers. The holes in the pavement collected all manner 
of filth, and the unpaved lanes, in wet weather, became deep pits 
of mud. We can understand why the townspeople wore over- 
shoes when they went out, and why even the saints in the pic- 
tures were represented with them on. The hving were crowded 
together in many-storied houses, airless and gloomy; the dead 
were buried close at hand in crowded churchyards. Such un- 
sanitary conditions must have been responsible for much of the 
sickness that was prevalent. The high death rate could only 
be offset by a birth rate correspondingly high, and by the 
constant influx of country people. 

Numerous petty regulations restricted the private life of 
the townspeople. The municipal authorities sometimes decided 
how many guests might be invited to weddings, civic 
how much might be spent on wedding presents, regulations 
what different garments might be owned and worn by a citizen, 
and even the number of trees that might be planted in his 
garden. Each citizen had to serve his turn as watchman on 
the walls or in the streets at night. When the great bell in the 
belfry rang the "curfew,"^ at eight or nine o'clock, this was 
the signal for every one to extinguish lights and fires and go 
to bed. It was a useful precaution, since conflagrations were 
common enough in the densely packed wooden houses. After 
curfew the streets became deserted, except for the night 
watch making their rounds and the presence of occasional 
pedestrians carrying lanterns. The municipal government spent 
httle or nothing on police protection, so that street brawls, 
and even robbery and murder, were not infrequent. 

The inhabitants of the city took a just pride in their public 
buildings. The market place, where traders assembled, often 
contained a beautiful cross and sometimes a Public 
market hall to shelter goods from the weather, ^^ild^igs 
Not far away rose the city hall,^ for the transaction of 
public business and the holding of civic feasts. The hall 
might be crowned by a high belfry with an alarm bell to 

1 French couvre feu, "cover fire." 

2 In French hotel de ville; in German Rathhaus. 



534 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



summon citizens to mass meeting. Then there would be a 
number of churches and abbeys and, if the city was the capital 
of a bishop's diocese, an imposing cathedral. 

The small size of medieval cities — few included as many as 
ten thousand inhabitants — simplified the problem of governing 
Municipal them. The leading merchants usually formed a 
government council presided over by a head magistrate, the 
burgomaster ^ or mayor ,2 who was assisted by aldermen.^ In 
some places the guilds chose the ofi&cials and managed civic 
affairs. These associations had many functions and held a most 
important place in city life. 

194. Civic Industry: the Guilds 

The Anglo-Saxon word "guild," which means "to pay," 
came to be applied to a club or society whose members made 
Formation contributions for some common purpose. This 
of guilds form of association is very old. Some of the 
guilds in imperial Rome had been estabhshed in the age of the 
kings, while not a few of those which flourish to-day in China 
and India were founded before the Christian era. Guilds ex- 
isted in Continental Europe as early as the time of Charlemagne, 
but they did not become prominent till after the crusades. 

A guild of merchants grew up when those who bought and 
sold goods in any place united to protect their own interests. 
Merchant The membership included many artisans, as well 
guilds g^g professional traders, for in medieval times a 

man often sold in the front room of his shop the goods which he 
made in the back rooms. He was often both shopkeeper and 
workman in one. 

The chief duty of a merchant guild was to preserve to its 
own members the monopoly of trade within a town. Strangers 
Commercial and non-guildsmen could not buy or sell there 
monopoly except under the conditions imposed by the guild. 
They must pay the town tolls, confine their dealings to guilds- 

1 German biir germeister, from burg, "castle." 

2 French maire, from Latin major, "greater." 

3 Anglo-Saxon ealdorman {eald means "old"). 



Civic Industry: the Guilds 



535 



Craft guilds 



men, and as a rule sell only at wholesale. They were forbidden 
to purchase wares which the townspeople w^anted for them- 
selves or to set up shops for retail trade. They enjoyed more 
freedom at fairs, which were 
intended to attract outsiders. 

After a time the traders and 
artisans engaged in a particu- 
lar occupation began to form 
an association of 
their own. Thus 
arose the craft guilds, com- 
posed of weavers, shoemakers, 
bakers, tailors, carpenters, and 
so on, until almost every form 
of industry had its separate 
organization. The names of 
the various occupations came 
to be used as the surnames of 
those engaged in them, so that 
to-day we have such com- 
mon family names as Smith, 
Cooper, Fuller, Potter, Chan- 
dler, and many others. The 
number of craft guilds in an 
important city might be very 
large. London and Paris at one time each had more than one 
hundred, and Cologne in Germany had as many as eighty. 
The members of a particular guild usually hved in the same 
street or quarter of the city, not only for companionship but 
also for better supervision of their labor.^ 

Just as the merchant guild regulated town trade, so the craft 
guilds had charge of to^ni industry. No one could engage in 
any craft without becoming a member of the guild industrial 
which controlled it and submitting to the guild n^onopoiy 
regulations. A man's hours of labor and the prices at which 

1 A map of London still shows such names as Shoe Lane, Distaff Lane, Cornhill, 
and many other similar designations of streets. 




House of the Butchers' Guild, 
HiLDESHEQi, Germany 

Hildesheim, near Hanover, is perhaps the 
richest of all German towns in fine wooden- 
framed houses. The house of the Butchers' 
Guild has been recently restored, with all its 
original coloring carefully reproduced. 



536 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



he sold his goods were fixed for him by the guild. He might 
not work elsewhere than in his shop, because of the difficulty of 
supervising him, nor might he work by artificial hght, lest he 
turn out badly finished goods. Everything made by him was 
carefully inspected to see if it contained shoddy materials or 
showed poor workmanship. Failure to meet the test meant a 
heavy fine or perhaps expulsion from the guild. Thus the 
industrial monopoly possessed by the craft guild gave some 
protection to both producer and consumer. 

Full membership in a guild was reached only by degrees. A 
boy started as an apprentice, that is, a learner. He paid a 
Organization sum of money to his master and agreed to serve 
of craft guilds j^jj^ fQj. ^ fixed period, usually seven years. The 
master, in turn, promised to provide the apprentice with food, 
lodging, and clothing, and to teach him all the secrets of the 
craft. At the end of the seven years the apprentice had to pass 
an examination by the guild. If he was found fit, he then 
became a journe3rman and worked for daily wages. As soon 
as he had saved enough money, he might set up as a master in 
his own shop. A master was at once workman and employer, 
laborer and capitahst. 

Like the old Roman guilds, those of the Middle Ages had their 
charitable and religious aspects. Each guild raised large 
Activities benefit funds for the relief of members or their 
of craft widows and orphans. Each guild had its private 

guilds altar in the cathedral, or often its own chapel, 

where masses were said for the repose of the souls of deceased 
members, and where on the day of its patron saint religious 
services were held. The guild was also a social organization, 
with frequent meetings for a feast in its hall or in some inn. The 
guilds in some cities entertained the people with an annual 
play or procession.^ It is clear that the members of a medieval 
craft guild had common interests and shared a common Hfe. 

As the craft guilds prospered and increased in wealth, 
they tended to become exclusive organizations. Member- 

1 The civic procession in London on Lord Mayor's Day is the last survival in 
England of these yearly shows. 



Trade and Commerce 



537 



ship fees were raised so high that few could afford to pay 
them, while the number of apprentices that a Dissolution 
master might take was strictly limited. It also be- of craft 
came increasingly difficult for journeymen to rise to 
the station of masters; they often remained wage-earners for 
life. The mass of workmen could no longer participate in the 
benefits of the guild system. In the eighteenth century most 
of the guilds lost their monopoly of industry, and in the 
nineteenth century they gave way to trade unions. 

195. Trade and Commerce 

Nearly every town of any consequence had a weekly or 
semiweekly market, which was held in the market place or in 
the churchyard. Marketing often occurred on j^^j^^^^ 
Sunday, in spite of many laws against this desecra- 
tion of the day. Outsiders who brought cattle and farm produce 
for sale in the market were required to pay tolls, either to the 
town authorities or sometimes to a neighboring nobleman. 
These market dues still survdve in the "octroi" collected at the 
gates of some European cities. 

People in the Middle Ages did not believe in unrestricted 

competition. It was thought wrong for anyone to purchase 

£foods outside of the regular market (" f orestaUing ") 

, 1 . 1 . . , ** Justprice" 

or to purchase them m larger quantities than nec- 
essary ("engrossing"). A man ought not to charge for a thing' 
more than it was worth, or to buy a thing cheap and sell it dear. 
The idea prevailed that goods should be sold at their "just 
price," which was not determined by supply and demand but 
by an estimate of the cost of the materials and the labor that 
WTnt into their manufacture. Laws were often passed fixing 
this "just price," but it was as difficult then as now to prevent 
the "cornering of the market" by shrewd and unscrupulous 
traders. 

Besides markets at frequent intervals, many towns held fairs 

once or twice a year. The fairs often lasted for a ^ . 

Fairs 

month or more. They were especially necessary 

in medieval Europe, because merchants did not keep large 



538 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 

quantities or many kinds of goods on their shelves, nor could 
intending purchasers afford to travel far in search of what they 




Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe 
IN the 13TH and 14TH Centuries 



wanted. The more important Enghsh fairs included those at 
Stourbridge near Cambridge, Winchester, St. Ives, and Boston. 
On the Continent fairs were numerous and in some places^ such 



Trade and Commerce 



539 



as Leipzig in Germany and Xijni-Xovgorod in Russia, they are 
still kept up. 

A fair gave opportunity for the sale of commodities brought 
from the most distant regions. Stourbridge Fair, for instance, 
attracted Venetians and Genoese with silk, pepper, Fairs and 
and spices of the East, Flemmgs with fine cloths and commerce 
linens, Spaniards "^dth iron and wine, Norwegians with tar 
and pitch from their forests, and Baltic merchants with furs, 
amber, and salted fish. The fairs, by fostering commerce, 
helped to make the various European peoples better 
acquainted with one another. 

Commerce in western Europe had almost disappeared as a 
result of the Germanic invasions and the estabhshment of feu- 
dahsm. WTiat httle commercial intercourse there -^^^^^ 
was encountered many obstacles. A merchant who commerce 
went by land from country to country might expect ^.^^^^ ^ 
to find bad roads, few bridges, and poor inns. 
Goods were transported on pack-horses instead of in wagons. 
Highway robbery was so common that travelers always carried 
arms and often united in bands for better protection. The 
feudal lords, often themselves not much more than highway- 
men, demanded tolls at every bridge and ford and on every 
road. If the merchant proceeded by water, he must face, in 
addition to the ordinary hazards of ^ind and wave, the danger 
from the ill-hghted coasts and from attacks by pirates. No 
wonder commerce languished in the early Middle Ages and 
for a long time lay chiefly in the hands of Byzantines ^ and 
Arabs. 2 

Even during the dark centuries that followed the end of the 
Roman Empire, some trade ^dth the Orient had been carried 
on by the cities of Italy and southern France. The commercial 
crusades, which brought East and West face to revival after 
face, greatly increased this trade. The ^Mediter- cmsades 
ranean lands first felt the stimulating effects of intercourse with 
the Orient, but before long the commercial revival extended to 
the rest of Europe. 

1 See page 336. See page 382. 



540 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



Before the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope the spices, 
drugs, incense, carpets, tapestries, porcelains, and gems of 
Asiatic trade India, China, and the East Indies reached the 
routes West by three main routes. All had been used in 

ancient times.^ The central and most important route led up 
the Persian Gulf and Tigris River to Bagdad, from which city 
goods went by caravan to Antioch or Damascus. The southern 
route reached Cairo and Alexandria by way of the Red Sea 
and the Nile. By taking advantage of the monsoons, a mer- 
chant ship could make the voyage from India to Egypt in about 
three months. The northern route, entirely overland, led to 
ports on the Black Sea and thence to Constantinople. It trav- 
ersed high mountain passes and long stretches of desert, and 
could profitably be used only for the transport of valuable 
articles small in bulk. The conquests of the Ottoman Turks 
greatly interfered with the use of this route by Christians 
after the middle of the fifteenth century. 

Oriental goods, upon reaching the Mediterranean, could be 
transported by water to northern Europe. Every year the 
European Venetians sent a fleet loaded with eastern products 
trade routes Bruges in Flanders, a city which was the most 
important depot of trade with Germany, England, and Scandi- 
navia. Bruges also formed the terminus of the main overland 
route leading from Venice over the Alps and down the Rhine. 
But as the map indicates, many other commercial highways 
linked the Mediterranean with the North Sea and the Baltic. 

It is important to note that until late in the Middle Ages 
trade existed, not between nations, but between cities. A 
Commercial merchant of London was almost as much a for- 
reiations eigner in any other Enghsh city as he would have 
been in Bruges, Paris, or Cologne. Consequently, each city 
needed to make commercial treaties with its neighbors, stipulat- 
ing what were the privileges and obligations of its merchants, 
wherever they went. It was not until the kings grew strong in 
western Europe that merchants could rely on the central gov- 
ernment, rather than on local authorities, for protection. 

1 See pages 47-48. 



(I 



Money and Banking 



541 



196. Money and Banking 

We have seen that business in the Middle Ages was chiefly of 
a retail character and was conducted in markets and fairs. 
The artisan who manufactured the goods he sold smaU scale 
and the peddler who carried his goods about from of business 
place to place were the leading types of medieval 
traders. Little wholesale business existed, and the merchant 
prince who owned warehouses and large stocks of goods was an 
exceptional figure. 

One reason for the small scale of business enterprise is found 
in the inadequate supply of money. From the beginning of 
the Christian era to the twelfth century there seems Lack of 
to have been a steady decrease in the amount of ^^^ney 
specie in circulation, partly because so much moved to the 
Orient in payment for luxuries, and partly because the few 
mines in western Europe went out of use during the period 
of the invasions. The scarcity of money, as has been shown,^ 
helped directly to build up the feudal system, since salaries, 
wages, and rents could be paid only in personal services or in 
produce. The money supply increased during the latter part 
of the Middle Ages, but it did not become sufficient for the 
needs of business till the discovery of the New World enabled 
the Spaniards to tap the wealth of the silver mines in Mexico 
and Peru.^ 

Medieval currency was not only small in amount but also 
faulty in character. Many great nobles enjoyed the privilege 
of keeping a mint and issuing coins. Since this Faults of 
feudal money passed at its full value only in the medieval 
locality where it was minted, a merchant had to ^^^^^^ 
be constantly changing his money, as he went from one fief to 
another, and always at a loss. Kings and nobles for their 
own profit would often debase the currency by putting silver 
into the gold coins and copper into the silver coins. Every 
debasement, as it left the coins with less pure metal, lowered 
their purchasing power and so raised prices unexpectedly. Even 



1 See page 417. 



2 See page 640. 



542 



Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



in countries like England, where debasement was exceptional, 
much counterfeit money circulated, to the constant impediment 
of trade. 

The prejudice against ''usury," as any lending of money at 
interest was called, made another hindrance to business enter- 
** Usury" prise. It seemed wrong for a person to receive 
laws interest, since he lost nothing by the loan of his 

money. Numerous Church laws condemned the receipt of 
interest as unchristian. If, however, the lender could show that 
he had suffered any loss, or had been prevented from making 
any gain, through not having his money, he might charge 
something for its use. In time people began to distinguish 
between interest moderate in anjount and an excessive charge 
for the use of money. The latter alone was henceforth pro- 
hibited as usurious. Most modern states still have usury 
laws which fix the legal rate of interest. 

The business of money lending, denied to Christians, fell into 
the hands of the Jews. In nearly all European countries popu- 
The Jews prejudice forbade the Jews to engage in agricul- 

as money ture, while the guild regulations barred them from 
industry. They turned to trade and finance for 
a livelihood and became the chief capitalists of medieval times. 
But the law gave the Jews no protection, and kings and nobles 
constantly extorted large sums from them. The persecutions 
of the Jews date from the era of the crusades, when it was as 
easy to excite fanatical hatred against them as against the 
Moslems. Edward I drove the Jews from England and 
Ferdinand and Isabella expelled them from Spain. They are 
still excluded from the Spanish peninsula, and in Russia and 
Austria they are not granted all the privileges which Chris- 
tians enjoy. 

The Jews were least persecuted in the commercial cities of 
northern Italy. Florence, Genoa, and Venice in the thirteenth 
Italian century were the money centers of Europe. The 

banking banking companies in these cities received deposits 
and then loaned the money to foreign governments and great 
nobles. It was the Florentine bankers, for instance, who 



Italian Cities 



543 



provided the English king, Edward III, with the funds to 
carry on his wars against France. The Italian banking houses 
had branches in the principal cities of Europe.^ It became 
possible, therefore, to introduce the use of bills of exchange 
as a means of balancing debts between countries, without 
the necessity of sending the actual money. This system of 
international credit was doubly important at a time when 
so many risks attended the transportation of the precious 
metals. Another Florentine uivention was bookkeeping by 
double-entry. 2 

197. Italian Cities 

The cities of northern Italy owed their prosperity, as we have 
learned, to the commerce with the Orient. It was this which 
gave them the means and the strength to keep up The city 
a long struggle for freedom against the German repubUcs 
emperors.^ The end of the struggle, at the middle of the thir- 
teenth century, saw all North Italy di\dded into the dominions 
of various independent cities. Among them were Milan, 
Pisa, Florence, Genoa, and Venice. 

Milan, a city of Roman origin, lay in the fertile vaUey of the 
Po, at a point where the trade routes through several Alpine 
passes converged. Milan early rose to importance, -^^^ 
and it stiU remains the commercial metropoHs of 
Italy. Manufacturing also flourished there. Milanese armor 
was once celebrated throughout Europe. The city is rich in 
works of art, the best known being the cathedral, which, after 
St. Peter's at Rome and the cathedral of Seville, is the largest 
church in Europe. Though the Milanese were able to throw 
off the imperial authority, their government fell into the hands 
of the local nobles, who ruled as despots. Almost all the 
Italian cities, except Venice, lost their freedom in this manner. 

1 Lombard Street in London, the financial center of England, received its name 
from the Italian bankers who established themselves in this part of the city. 

2 Among the ItaUan words havdng to do with commerce and banking which 
have come into general use are conto, disconto, risico, neito, deposito, folio, and 
bilanza. 

3 See page 460. 



544 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



Pisa, like Milan, was an old Roman city which profited by the 

disorders of the barbarian invasions to assert its independence. 

The situation of Pisa on the Arno River, seven 
Pisa ' 

miles from the sea, made it a maritime state, and 
the Pisan navy gained distinction in warfare against the Mos- 
lems in the Mediterranean. The Pisans joined in the First 




Baptistery, Cathedral, and "Leaning Tower" of Pisa 



These three buildings in the piazza of Pisa form one of the most interesting architectural 
groups in Italy. The baptistery, completed in 1278 a.d., is a circular structure, 100 feet 
in diameter and covered with a high dome. The cathedral was consecrated in 11 18 A.D. 
The finest part of the building is the west front with its four open arcades. The campanile, 
or bell tower, reaches a height of 179 feet. Owing to the sinking of the foundations, it leans 
from the perpendicular to a striking extent (now about i6i feet). 

Crusade and showed their valor at the capture of Jerusalem. 
They profited greatly by the crusading movement and soon pos- 
sessed banks, warehouses, and trading privileges in every eastern 
port. But Pisa had bitter rivals in Florence and Genoa, and 
the conflicts with these two cities finally brought about the 
destruction of its power. 

Florence, Pisa's neighbor on the Arno, was renowned for 
manufactures. The fine wool, silk cloths, golden brocades, 

jewelry, and metal work of Florence were imported 
Florence . r -i 1 

into all European countries. The craft guilds 

were very strong there, and even the neighboring nobles, who 



Italian Cities 



545 



wished to become citizens, had first to enroll themselves in some 
guild. It was from banking, however, that Florence gained 
most wealth. In the fifteenth century the city contained 
eighty great banking houses, in addition to numerous branches 
outside of Italy. With their commercial spirit the Florentines 
combined a remarkable taste for art and literature. Their 
city, whose population never exceeded seventy thousand, gave 
birth to some of the most illustrious poets, prose writers, archi- 
tects, sculptors, and painters of medieval times. It was the 
Athens of Italy.^ 

Genoa, located on the guLf of the same name, possessed a safe 
and spacious harbor. During the era of the crusades the city 
carried on a flourishing trade in both the Mediter- ^^^^^ 
ranean and the Atlantic. After the fall of the 
Latin Empire of Constantinople ^ the Genoese almost monopo- 
lized Oriental commerce along the Black Sea route. The 
closing of this route by the Ottoman Turks was a heavy blow 
to their prosperity, which also suffered from the active com- 
petition of Venice. 

Almost alone among Italian cities Venice was not of Roman 
origin. Its beginning is traced back to the period of barbarian 
inroads, when fugitives from the mainland sought Situation of 
a new home on the islands at the head of the Venice 
Adriatic.^ These islands, which lie about five miles from the 
coast, are protected from the outer sea by a long sand bar. They 
are little more than mud-banks, barely rising above the shallow 
water of the lagoons. The oozy soil aft'orded no support for 
buildings, except when strengthened by piles; there was scarcely 
any land fit for farming or cattle-raising; and the only drinking 
water had to be stored from the rainfall. Yet on this unpromis- 
ing site arose one of the most splendid of European cities. 

The early inhabitants of Venice got their living from the sale 
of sea salt and fish, two commodities for which a constant 
demand existed in the Middle Ages. Large quan- Venetian 
titles of salt were needed for preserving meat in comnierce 
the winter months, while fish was eaten by all Christians on 
1 See page 590. 2 See page 478. ^ See page 248. 



546 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 

the numerous fast days and in Lent. The Venetians exchanged 
these commodities for the productions of the mainland and so 
built up a thriving trade. From fishermen they became mer- 
chants, with commercial relations which gradually extended 




Venice and the Grand Canal 



to the Orient. The crusades vastly increased the wealth of 
Venice, for she provided the ships in which troops and supplies 
went to the Holy Land and she secured the largest share of the 
new eastern trade. Venice became the great emporium of 
the Mediterranean. As a commercial center the city was the 
successor of ancient Tyre, Carthage, Athens, and Alexandria. 

Venice also used the crusading movement for her political 
advantage. The capture of Constantinople in the Fourth 
Venetian Crusade extended Venetian control over the Pelo- 
possessions ponnesus,^ Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and many 
smaller islands in the eastern Mediterranean. Even before 
this time Venice had begun to gain possessions upon the 
Italian mainland and along the Adriatic coast. At the 

1 Known in the Middle Ages as the Morea. 



I 

I 



German Cities 



547 



height of her power about 1400 a.d. she ruled a real 
empire.^ 

The commerce and possessions of Venice made it necessary 
for her to maintain a powerful fleet. She is said to have had 
at one time over three thousand merchant vessels, Venetian 
besides forty-five war galleys. Her ships went power 
out in squadrons, mth men-of-war acting as a convoy against 
pirates. One fleet traded with the ports of western Europe, 
another proceeded to the Black Sea, while others visited Syria 
and Egypt to meet the caravans from the Far East. Venetian 
sea power hmnbled Genoa and for a long time held the Mediter- 
ranean against the Ottoman Turks. 

The greatness of Venice was celebrated by the annual cere- 
mony of "the wedding of the sea." The doge,^ or j^^^ u Queen 
chief magistrate, standing in the bows of the state of the 
barge, cast a ring of gold into the Adriatic with ^'^^^^ 
the proud words, ''We have wedded thee, O sea, in token of 
our rightful and perpetual dominion." 

The visitor to modern Venice can still gain a good impression 
of what the city must have looked like in the fourteenth century, 
when ships of every nation crowded its quays and Venice 
strangers of every country thronged its squares or described 
sped in Hght gondolas over the canals which take the place of 
streets. The main highway is still the Grand Canal, nearly two 
miles long and lined with palaces and churches. The Grand 
Canal leads to St. Mark's Cathedral, briUiant with mosaic pic- 
tures, the Campanile, or bell tower, and the Doge's Palace. The 
''Bridge of Sighs" connects the ducal palace with the state 
prisons. The Rialto in the business heart of Venice is another 
famous bridge. But these are only a few of the historic and 
beautiful buildings of the island city. 

198. German Cities: the Hauseatic League 

The important trade routes from Venice and Genoa through 
the Alpine passes into the valleys of the Rhine and Danube were 

1 For the Venetian possessions in 1453 a.d. see the map, page 494. 

2 That is, "diike." 



548 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



responsible for the prosperity of many fine cities in southern 

Cities of central Germany. Among them were Augs- 

southern and burg, which rivaled Florence as a financial center, 

Germany Nuremberg, famous for artistic metal work, Ulm, 

I Strassburg, and Cologne. The feeble rule of the 

German kings compelled the cities to form several confederacies 

for the purpose of resisting the extortionate tolls and downright 

robberies of feudal lords. 

It was the Baltic commerce which brought the cities of 

northern Germany into a firm union. From the Baltic region 

came large quantities of dried and salted fish, espe- 

Cities of cially herring, wax candles for church services, 
northern i 

Germany skins, tallow, and lumber. Furs were also in 
great demand. Every one wore them during the 
winter, on account of the poorly heated houses. The German 
cities which shared in this commerce early formed the celebrated 
Hanseatic ^ League for protection against pirates and feudal 
lords. 

The league seems to have begun with an alliance of Hamburg 

„ , , . and Liibeck to safeguard the traffic on the Elbe. 
Membership i r i i -1*1 

of the The growth of the league was rapid. At the 

L^^e*^^ period of its greatest power, about 1400 a.d., 

there were upwards of eighty Hanseatic cities 

along the Baltic coast and in the inland districts of northern 

Germany. 

The commercial importance of the league extended far beyond 
the borders of Germany. Its trading posts, or factories," 
Hanseatic at Bergen in Norway and Novgorod in Russia con- 
" factories" trolled the export trade of those two countries. 
Similar estabhshments existed at London, on the Thames 
just above London Bridge, and at Bruges in Flanders. Each 
factory served as a fortress where merchants could be safe 
from attack, as a storehouse for goods, and as a general 
market. 

The Hanseatic League ruled over the Baltic Sea very much 
as Venice ruled over the Adriatic. In spite of its monopohstic 

1 From the old German hansa, a "confederacy." 



The Cities of Flanders 549 

tendencies, so opposed to the spirit of free intercourse between 
nations, the league did much useful work by sup- jj^^^^^^.^ 
pressing piracy and by encouraging the art of navi- of the 
gation. Modern Germans look back to it as proof ^e^Te 
that their country can play a great part on the 
seas. The Hanseatic merchants were also pioneers in the hah- 
barbarous lands of northern and eastern Europe, where they 
founded towns, fostered industry, and introduced comforts 
and luxuries previously unknown. Such services in advanc- 
ing civiUzation were comparable to those performed by the 
Teutonic Knights.^ 

After several centuries of usefulness the league lost its mon- 
opoly of the Baltic trade and began to decline. Moreover 

the Baltic, hke the Mediterranean, sank to minor ^ 

' ' Decline 

importance as a commercial center, after the Por- of the 

tuguese had discovered the sea route to India and Hanseatic 

League 

the Spaniards had opened up the New World. ^ 
City after city gradually withdrew from the league, till only 
Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen remained. They are still 
called free and independent cities, though now they form a 
part of the German Empire. 

199. The Cities of Flanders 

In the Middle Ages the Netherlands, or " Low Countries," 
now divided between Holland and Belgium, consisted of a num- 
ber of feudal states, nominally under the control County of 
of German and French kings, but really quite Glanders 
independent. Among them was the county of Flanders. It 
included the coast region from Calais to the mouth of the 
Scheldt, as weU as a considerable district in what is now north- 
western France. The inhabitants of Flanders were partly of 
Teutonic extraction (the Flemings) and partly akin to the 
French (the Walloons). 

Flanders enjoyed a good situation for commerce. The coun- 
try formed a convenient stopping place for merchants who went 



1 See page 526. 



2 See page 640. 



550 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 



Flemish 
wool trade 



by sea between the Mediterranean and the Baltic, while im- 
Flandersasa P^^^^^^ ^^^^ routes led thither from all parts 
commercial of western Europe. Flanders was also an in- 
cent^r"^""^*^^ dustrial center. Its middle classes early discov- 
ered the fact that by devotion to manufacturing 
even a small and sterile region may become rich and populous. 

The leading indus- 
try of Flanders was 
weaving. 
England 
in the Middle Ages 
raised great flocks of 
sheep, but lacking 
skilled workmen to 
manufacture the wool 
into fine cloth, sent it 
across the Channel to 
Flanders. A medieval 
writer declared that 
the whole world was 
clothed in English 
wool manufactured 
by the Flemings. The 
taxes that were laid 
on the export of wool 
helped to pay the 
expenses of English 

Bruges, the capital of West Flanders, contains many kings in their WarS 
fine monuments of the Middle Ages. Among these is the ,i ttt i -i ,i 

belfry, which rises in the center of the facade of the market "^^"-^ "-^^ WeiSn, me 
hall. It dates from the end of the thirteenth century. Scotch, and the Irish. 
Its height is 352 feet. The belfry consists of three stories, rpi ] A 1 

the two lower ones square, and the upper one, octagonal. 

made Flanders the 
ally of England in the Hundred Years' War, thus beginning 
that historic friendship between the two countries which still 
endures. 

Among the thriving communities of Flanders three held an 
exceptional position. Bruges was the mart where the trade of 




Belfry of Bruges 



The Cities of Flanders 



551 




Town Hall of Louvain, Belgium 

One of the richest and most ornate examples of Gothic architecture. 
Erected in the fifteenth century. The building consists of three stories, above 
which rises the lofty roof crowned with graceful towers. The interior 
decorations and arrangements are commonplace. 



southern Europe, in the hands of the Venetians, and the trade 
of northern Europe, in the hands of the Hanseatic merchants, 
came together. Ghent, with forty thousand work- Bruges, 
shops, and Ypres, which counted two hundred Ghent, and 
thousand workmen within its walls and suburbs, ^^^^^ 
were scarcely less prosperous. When these cities declined in 



552 Cities during the Later Middle Ages 

wealth, Antwerp became the commercial metropoHs of the 
Netherlands. 

During the fourteenth century Flanders was annexed by 
France. The Flemish cities resisted bravely, and on more than 
Flanders One occasion their citizen levies, who could handle 
and France ^^le sword and ax, as well as the loom, defeated the 
French armies, thus demonstrating again that foot soldiers were 
a match for mailed cavalry. Had the cities been able to form 
a lasting league, they might have established an independent 
Flanders, but the bitter rivalry of Ghent and Bruges led to for- 
eign domination, lasting into the nineteenth century.^ 

The great cities of Flanders, Germany, and Italy, not to 
speak of those in France, Spain, and England, were much 
The cities more than centers of trade, industry, and finance. 

. Within their walls learning and art flourished to 
civilization extent which had never been possible in earlier 

times, when rural life prevailed throughout western Europe. 
We shall now see what the cities of the Middle Ages con- 
tributed to civilization. 

Studies 

I. Indicate on the map some great commercial cities of the Middle Ages as 
follows: four in Italy; three in the Netherlands; and six in Germany. 2. Why 
does an American city have a charter? Where is it obtained? What privileges 
does it confer? 3. Who comprised the "third estate" in the Middle Ages? What 
class corresponds to it at the present time? 4. Why has the medieval city been 
called the "birthplace of modern democracy"? 5. Compare the merchant guild 
with the modern chamber of commerce, and craft guilds with modern trade unions. 

6. Look up the origin of the words "apprentice," "journeyman," and "master." 

7. Why was there no antagonism between labor and capital under the guild sys- 
tem? 8. Compare the medieval abhorrence of "engrossing" with the modem 
idea that "combinations in restraint of trade" are wrong. 9. Why were fairs a 
necessity in the Middle Ages? Why are they not so useful now? Where are they 
still found? 10. Compare a medieval fair with a modern exposition. 11. What 
would be the effect on trade within an American state if tolls were levied on the 
border of every county? 12. What is meant by a "robber baron"? 13. How did 
the names "damask" linen, "chinaware, " "japanned" ware, and "cashmere" 
shawls originate? 14. Why was the purchasing power of money much greater in 
the Middle Ages than it is now? 15. Why are modern coins always made perfectly 
round and with "milled" edges? 16. Are modern coins "debased" to any consid- 



1 In 1 83 1 A.D. the two provinces of East Flanders and West Flanders became 
part of the modern kingdom of Belgium. 



The Cities of Flanders 



553 



erable extent? What is the use of alloys? 17. Why was the money-changer so 
necessary a figure in medieval business? 18. How is it easy to evade laws for- 
bidding usury? 19. Look up in an encyclopedia the legend of the "Wandering 
Jew." How does it illustrate the medieval attitude toward Jews? 20. Write 
out the EngHsh equivalents of the Itahan words mentioned in the second footnote 
on page 543. 21. Compare the ItaUan despots with the Greek tyrants. 22. Show 
that Venice in medieval times was the seaport nearest the heart of commercial 
Europe. 23. Compare the Venetian and Athenian sea-empires in respect to (a) 
extent, (b) duration, and (c) commercial pohcy. 24. Why was Venice called the 
"bride of the sea"? 



CHAPTER XXIV 



MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION! 

200. Formation of National Languages 

The twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which in western 
Europe saw the rise of national states out of the chaos of 
The 12th feudalism and the development of cities, may 
and 13th be regarded as the central period of the Middle 
centunes Ages. During this time there flourished a civili- 
zation which is properly described as medieval," to distinguish 
it from classical civilization on the one side and modern civ- 
ilization on the other side. The various European languages 
then began to assume something like their present form. A 
large body of literature, in both poetry and prose, appeared. 
Architecture revived, and flowered in majestic cathedrals. Edu- 
cation also revived, especially in the universities with their 
thousands of students. These and other aspects of medieval 
life will now engage our attention. 

Throughout the Middle Ages Latin continued to be an inter- 
national language. The Roman Church used it for papal bulls 

^ . and other documents. Prayers were recited, 

Latin as 

an inter- hymns were sung, and sometimes sermons were 
iS^a^e preached in Latin. It was also the language of 
men of culture everywhere in western Christendom. 
University professors lectured in Latin, students spoke Latin, 
lawyers addressed judges in Latin, and the merchants in different 
countries wrote Latin letters to one another. All learned books 
were composed in Latin until the close of the sixteenth century. 
This practice has not yet been entirely abandoned by European 
scholars. 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xvii, "Medieval 
Tales"; chapter xviii, "Three Medieval Epics." 

554 



Formation of National Languages 555 



Each European country during the Middle Ages had also 
its own national tongue. The so-called Romance lan- 
guages/ including modern French, ItaUan, Spanish, The Romance 
Portuguese, and Rumanian, were derived from languages 
the Latin spoken by the Romanized inhabitants of the lands 
now known as France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Rumania. 
Their colloquial Latin naturally lacked the elegance of the 
Hterary Latin used by Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, and other classi- 
cal authors. The difference between the written and spoken 
forms of the language became more marked from the fifth 
century onward, in consequence of the barbarian invasions, 
which brought about the dechne of learning. Gradually in each 
country new and vigorous tongues arose, related to, yet dif- 
ferent from, the old classical Latin in pronunciation, grammar, 
and vocabulary. 

The indebtedness of the Romance languages to Latin is well 
illustrated by the case of French. It contains less than a thou- 
sand words introduced by the German invaders of ^ 

French 

Gaul. Even fewer in number are the words of 
Celtic origin. Nearly all the rest are derived from Latin. 

The popular Latin of the Gallo-Romans gave rise to two quite 
independent languages in medieval France. The first was used 
in the southern part of the country; it was called Development 
Provencal (from Provence). The second was of French 
spoken in the north, particularly in the region about Paris. The 
unification of the French kingdom under Hugh Capet and his 
successors gradually extended the speech of northern France 
over the entire country. Even to-day, however, one may hear 
in the south of France the soft and harmonious Provencal. 

The barbarians who poured from the wilds of central Europe 
into the Roman world brought their languages with them. But 
the speech of the Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, The Teutonic 
and Lombards disappeared, while that of the languages 
Franks in Gaul, after their conversion to Christianity, gradu- 
ally gave way to the popular Latin of their subjects. The 
Teutonic peoples who remained outside what had been the 

1 See pages 208, 322. 



556 



Medieval Civilization 



limits of the Roman world continued to use their native tongues 
during the Middle Ages. From them have come modern Ger- 
man, Dutch, Flemish,^ and the various Scandinavian languages 
(Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic In their earhest 
known forms all these languages show unmistakeable traces of 
a common origin. 

Britain was the only Roman province in the west of Europe 
where a Teutonic language took root and maintained itself. 

, , „ Here the rougrh, guttural speech of the Anglo-Saxons 
Anglo-Saxon if f i ^ ^ . , 

so completely drove out the popular Latm that 

only six words were left behind by the Romans, when they 

abandoned the island early in the fifth century. More Celtic 

words remained, words like cradle, crock, mop, and pillow, which 

were names of household objects, and the names of rivers, 

mountains, and lakes, which were not easily changed by the 

invaders.^ But with such slight exceptions Anglo-Saxon was 

thoroughly Teutonic in vocabulary, as well as in grammar. 

In course of time Anglo-Saxon underwent various changes. 
Christian missionaries, from the seventh century onward, 
Changes in introduced many new Latin terms for church 
Anglo-Saxon ofhces, services, and observances. The Danes, 
besides contributing some place-names, gave us that most 
useful word are, and also the habit of using to before an infinitive. 
The coming of the Normans deeply affected Anglo-Saxon. 
Norman-French influence helped to make the language simpler, 
by ridding it of the cumbersome declensions and conjugations 
which it had in common with all Teutonic tongues. Many new 
Norman-French words also crept in, as the hostihty of the 
English people toward their conquerors disappeared. 

By the middle of the thirteenth century Anglo-Saxon, or 
English, as it may now be called, had taken on a somewhat 
familiar appearance, as in these opening words of the Lord's 

1 The language spoken by the natives of Flanders. The country is now divided 
between France, Belgium, and Holland. See page 549. 

2 Icelandic is the oldest and purest form of Scandinavian. Danish and Nor- 
wegian are practically the same, in fact, their Uterary or book-language is one. 

^ Two names for rivers — Avon and Ex — which in one form or another are 
found in every part of England, are Celtic words meaning "water." 



Formation of National Languages 557 



Prayer: "Fadir ur, that es in heven, Halud thinam to nevene, 
Thou do as thi rich rike, Thi will on erd be wrought, Development 
eekas it is wrought in heven ay." In the poems of EngUsh 
of Geoffrey Chaucer (about 1340-1400 a.d.), especially in his 
Canterbury Tales, Eng- 
lish wears quite a mod- 
ern aspect, though the 
reader is often troubled 
by the old speUing and 
by certain words not 
now in use. The 
changes in the gram- 
mar of English have 
been so extremely small 
since 1485 a.d. — the 
beginning of the reign 
of Henry VII 1 — that 
any Enghshman of or- 
dinary education can 
read without difficulty 
a book written more 
than four hundred 
years ago. 

WTiat in medieval 
times was the speech 
of a few millions of 
Englishmen on a single small island is now spoken by at least 
one hundred and fifty millions of people all over English 
the world. English is well fitted for the role of a as a world- 
universal language, because of its absence of ^^^^s® 
inflections and its simple sentence-order. The great number of 
one-syllabled words in the language also makes for ease in 
understanding it. Furthermore, English has been, and still is, 
extremely hospitable to new words, so that its vocabulary has 
grown very fast by the adoption of terms from Latin, French, 
and other languages. These have immensely increased the 

1 See page 518. 




Geoffrey Chaucer 

From an old manuscript in the British Museum, 
London. The only existing portrait of Chaucer. 



Medieval Civilization 



expressiveness of English, while giving it a position midway 
between the very different Romance and Teutonic languages. 

201. Development of National Literatures 

Medieval literature, though inferior in quahty to that of 

Greece and Rome, nevertheless includes many notable produc- 

, . , tions. In the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries 

Latin hymns 

Latin hymns reached their perfection. The sub- 
lime Dies IrcB ("Day of Wrath") presents a picture of the final 
judgment of the wicked. The pathetic Stahat Mater, which 
describes the sorrows of Mary at the foot of the Cross, has been 
often translated and set to music. These two works were writ- 
ten by a companion and biographer of St. Francis of Assisi. 
St. Bernard's Dulcis Memoria ("Jesus, the Very Thought 
of Thee") forms part of a beautiful hymn nearly two hun- 
dred lines in length. Part of another hymn, composed by 
a monk of Cluny, has been rendered into English as " Jeru- 
salem the Golden." Latin hymns made use of rhyme, then 
something of a novelty, and thus helped to popularize this 
poetic device. 

Very unlike the hymns in character were the Latin songs com- 
posed by students who went from one university to another in 
Latin search of knowledge and adventure. Far from 

students' home, careless and pleasure-seeking, light of purse 
and light of heart, the wandering scholars of the 
Middle Ages frequented taverns, as well as lecture rooms, and 
knew the wine-bowl even better than books. Their songs of 
love, of dancing, drinking, and gaming, reflect the jovial side 
of medieval life. 

Still another glimpse of gay society is afforded by the songs 
of the troubadours. These professional poets flourished in the 
Songs of the south of France, but many of them traveled from 
troubadours court to court in other countries. Their verses, 
composed in the Provencal language, were always sung to the 
accompaniment of some musical instrument, generally the lute. 
Romantic love and deeds of chivalry were the two themes which 
most inspired the troubadours. They, too, took up the use of 



ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT 
Manuscript of Chaucer in British Museuin 



Development of National Literatures 559 



The Charle- 
magne 
legend 



rhyme, using it so skilfully as to become the teachers of Europe 
in lyric poetry. 

If southern France was the native home of the lyric, north- 
ern France gave birth to epic or narrative verse. Here arose 
many poems, describing the exploits of mythical The French 
heroes or historic kings. For a long time the poems 
remained unwritten and were recited by minstrels, who did 
not hesitate to modify and enlarge them at will. It was not 
until late in the eleventh century that any epics were written 
down. They enjoyed high esteem in aristocratic circles and 
penetrated all countries where feudahsm prevailed. 

Many of the French epics centered about the commanding 
personality of Charlemagne. After his death he became a 
figure of legend. 
He was said to 
liave reigned one 
hundred and twenty-five years, 
to have made a pilgrimage to 
Jerusalem, and to have risen 
from the dead to lead the First 
Crusade. Angels inspired his 
actions. His sword contained 
the point of the lance which 
pierced the Savior's side. His 
standard was the banner of 
St. Peter. Though history 
shows that Charlemagne had 
little contact with the Moslems, 
in the popular mind he stood 
forth as the great champion of Christianity against Islam. 

The oldest, and at the same time the finest, epic connected 
with Charlemagne is the Song of Roland} The poem centers 
.around Roland, one of the twelve peers of France. Song of 
When leading the rearguard of Charlemagne's army ^o^^nd 
out of Spain, Roland is suddenly attacked by the treacherous 
Moors. He slays the enemy in heaps with his good sword, Du- 

1 See page 309, note i. 




Roland at Roncesvalles 

From a thirteenth-century window of 
stained glass in Chartres Cathedral. At the 
right Roland sounding his horn; at the left 
Roland endeavoring to break his sword 
Durendal. 



56o 



Medieval Civilization 



rendal, and only after nearly all the Franks have perished sounds 
his magic horn to summon aid. Charlemagne, fifteen leagues 
distant, hears its notes and returns quickly. But before help 
arrives, Roland has fallen. He dies on the field of battle, 
with his face to the foe, and a prayer on his lips that "sweet 
France" may never be dishonored. This stirring poem ap- 
pealed strongly to the martial Normans. A medieval chroni- 
cler relates that just before the battle of Hastings a Norman 
minstrel rode out between the lines, tossing his sword in air and 
catching it again, as he chanted the song "of Roland and of 
Charlemagne, of Oliver and many a brave vassal who lost his 
life at Roncesvalles." 

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were also 
important figures in medieval legend. Arthur was said to have 
^jjg reigned in Britain early in the sixth century and to 

Arthurian have fought against the Anglo-Saxons. Whether 
romances ^^^^ lived or not we do not know. In the Arthu- 

rian romances this Celtic king stands forth as the model knight, 
the ideal of noble chivalry. The Norman conquerors of England 
carried the romances to France, and here, where feudalism was 
so deeply rooted, they found a hearty welcome. Sir Thomas 
Malory's Morte d' Arthur, one of the first books to be printed in 
England, contains many of the narratives from which Tennyson, 
in his Idylls of the King, and other modern poets have drawn 
their inspiration. 

The greatest epic composed in Germany during the Middle 
Ages is the Nibelungenlied. The poem begins in Burgundy, 
TheNibe- where three kings hold court at Worms, on the 
lungenlied Rhine. Thither comes the hero, Siegfried, ruler of 
the Netherlands. He had slain the mysterious Nibelungs and 
seized their treasure, together with the magic cloud-cloak which 
rendered its wearer invisible to human eyes. He had also killed 
a dragon and by bathing in its blood had become invulnerable, 
except in one place where a linden leaf touched his body. 
Siegfried marries Kriemhild, a beautiful Eurgundian princess, 
and with her lives most happily. But a curse attached to the 
Nibelung treasure, and Siegfried's enemy, the "grim Hagen, " 



Development of National Literatures 561 



treacherously slays him by a spear thrust in the one spot where 
he could be hurt. Many years afterwards Kriemhild marries 
Attila, king of the Huns, on condition that he help her to ven- 
geance. Hagen and his Burgundians are invited to Hunland, 
where Kriemhild causes them all to be put to death. The name 
of the poet who compiled and probably wrote much of the 
Nibelungenlied remains unknown, but his work has a place 
among the classics of German literature. 

No account of medieval literature ought to omit a reference 
to Reynard the Fox. This is a long poem, first written in Latin, 
and then turned into the chief languages of Europe. Reynard 
The characters are animals: Reynard, cunning and 
audacious, who outwits all his foes; Chanticleer the cock; 
Bruin the Bear; Isengrim the Wolf; and many others. But 
they are animals in name only. We see them worship like 
Christians, go to Mass, ride on horseback, debate in councils, 
and amuse themselves with hawking and hunting. Satire often 
creeps in, as when the villainous Fox confesses his sins to the 
Badger or vows that he will go to the Holy Land on a pil- 
grimage. The special interest of this w^ork lies in the fact that 
it expressed the feelings of the common people, groaning under 
the oppression of feudal lords. 

The same democratic spirit breathes in the old EngHsh bal- 
lads of the outlaw Robin Hood. According to some accounts 
he flourished in the second half of the twelfth cen- The Robin 
tury, when Henry H and Richard the Lion- Hood ballads 
hearted reigned over England. Robin Hood, with his merry 
men, leads an adventurous life in Sherwood Forest, engaging 
in feats of strength and hunting the king's tall deer. Bishops, 
sheriffs, and gamekeepers are his only enemies. For the com- 
mon people he has the greatest pity, and robs the rich to endow 
the poor. Courtesy, generosity, and love of fair play are some 
of the characteristics which made him a popular hero. If King 
Arthur was the ideal knight, Robin Hood was the ideal yeoman. 
The ballads about him were sung by country folk for hundreds 
of years. 



562 



Medieval Civilization 



202. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture; the Cathedrals 

The genius of the Middle Ages found its highest expression, 
not in books, but in buildings. For several hundred years after 
Twoarchi- barbarian invasions architecture had made 

tectural little progress in western Europe, outside of 
styles Italy, which was subject to Byzantine influence,^ 

and Spain, which was a center of Mohammedan culture.^ 

Beginning about 800 a.d. 
came a revival, and the 
adoption of an architec- 
tural style called Ro- 
manesque, because it 
went back to Roman 
principles of construc- 
tion. Romanesque 
architecture arose in 
northern Italy and 
southern France and 
gradually spread to other 
European countries. It 
was followed about iioo 
A.D. by the Gothic style 
of architecture, which 
prevailed during the 
next four centuries. 

The church of the 
early Christians seems 

The Roman- tO have 
esque church ^^^^^ j^q^. 

eled upon the Roman 
basilica, with its ar- 
rangement of nave and 
aisles, its circular arched recess (apse) at one end, and its flat, 
wooden ceiling supported by columns.^ The Romanesque 
church departed from the basilican plan by the introduction of 

1 See page 336. 2 See page 386. ^ See pages 284, 344. 




Plan of Salisbury Cathedral, England 

Note the double transepts. 



REIMS CATHEDRAL 



The cathedral of Notre Dame at Reims in northwestern France stands on the site where 
Clovis was baptized by St. Remi. Here most of the French Kings were consecrated with holy 
oil by the archbishops of Reims. Except the west front, which was built in the fourteenth 
century, the cathedral was completed by the end of the thirteenth century. The towers, 
267 feet high, were originally designed to reach 394 feet. The fagade, with its three arched 
portals, exquisite rose window, and " gallery of the kings," is justly celebrated. The 
cathedral was much damaged by the bombardment to which it was subjected in 1914 a.d. 



Romanesque and Gothic Architecture 563 



transepts, thus giving the building the form of a Latin cross. A 
dome, which might be covered by a pointed roof, was generally 
raised over the junction of the nave and transepts. At the 
same time the apse was enlarged so as to form the choir, a 
place reserved for the clergy. 

The Romanesque church also differed from a basilica in the 
use of vaulting to take the place of a flat ceiling. The old 
Romans had constructed their vaulted roofs and vaulting 
domes in concrete, which forms a rigid mass and and the 
rests securely upon the walls like the lid of a 
box.^ Medieval architects, however, built in stone, which exerts 
an outward thrust and tends to force the walls apart. Conse- 
quently they found it necessary to make the walls very thick 
and to strengthen them by piers, or buttresses, on the outside 
of the edifice. It was also necessary to reduce the width of the 
vaulted spaces. The vaulting, windows, and doorways had the 
form of the round arch, that is, a semicircle, as in the ancient 
Roman monuments.^ 

Gothic architecture arose in France in the country around 
Paris, at a time when the French kingdom was taking the lead 
in European affairs. Later it spread to England, The Gothic 
Germany, the Netherlands, and even to southern 
Europe. As an old chronicler wrote, "it was as if the whole 
world had thrown off the rags of its ancient time, and had 
arrayed itself in the white robes of the churches." The term 
Gothic was applied contemptuously to this architectural style 
by writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who 
regarded everything non-classical as barbarous. They believed 
it to be an invention of the barbarian Goths, and so they called 
it Gothic. The name has stuck, as bad names have a habit of 
doing, but nowadays every one recognizes the greatness of this 
medieval art. The most beautiful buildings of the Middle Ages 
are of Gothic architecture. 

The Gothic style formed a natural development of the 

1 See page 283. 

2 The cathedral, baptistery, and campanile of Pisa form an interesting example 
of Romanesque architecture. See the illustration, page 544. 



5^4 



Medieval Civilization 



Ribbed 
vaulting and 
the flying 
buttress 



Romanesque style. The architects of a Gothic church wished 
to retain the vaulted ceihng but at the same time to do away 
with thick, sohd walls, which had so little window 
space as to leave the interior of the building dark 
and gloomy. They solved this problem, in the first 
place, by using a great number of stone ribs, 
which gathered up the weight of the ceihng and rested on pil- 
lars. Ribbed vaulting made 
possible higher ceilings, span- 
ning wider areas, than in Ro- 
manesque churches.^ In the 
second place, the pillars sup- 
porting the ribs were themselves 
connected by means of, flying 
buttresses with stout piers of 
masonry outside the walls of 
the church. 2 These walls, re- 
lieved from the pressure of the 
ceiling, now became a mere 
screen to keep out the weather. 
They could be built of light 
materials and opened up with 
high, wide windows. 

Ribbed vaulting and the fly- 
ing buttress are the distinctive 
The pointed features of Gothic 
architecture. A 
third feature, noteworthy but 
not so important, is the use of 
the pointed arch. It was not 
Christian in origin, for it had 
long been known to the Arabs in the East and the Moslem con- 
querors of Sicily.^ The semicircular or round arch can be only 
half as high as it is wide, but the pointed arch may vary greatly 

1 The interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, shows the ribs and the 
beautiful tracery of the ceiling of a Gothic building. See the plate facing page 570. 

2 The flying buttress is well shown in the view of Canterbury Cathedral (page 
324). 3 See page 386. 




Cross Section of Amiens 
Cathedral 

A, vaulting; B, ribs; C, flying but- 
tresses; D, buttresses; E, low windows; 
F, clerestory. 



Romanesque and Gothic Architecture 565 



Gothic 
ornament 




in its proportions. The use of this device enabled the Gothic 
builder to bridge over different widths at any required height. 
It is also Hghter and more graceful than the round arch.^ 

The labors of the Gothic architect were admirably seconded 
by those of other artists. The sculptor cut figures of men, 
animals, and 
plants in the 
utmost profusion. The 
painter covered vacant 
wall spaces with brilliant 
mosaics and frescoes. The 
wood-carver made exqui- 
site choir stalls, pulpits, 
altars, and screens. Mas- 
ter workmen filled the 
stone tracery of the win- 
dows with stained glass 
unequaled in coloring by 
the finest modern work. 
Some rigorous churchmen 
like St. Bernard con- 
demned the expense of 
these magnificent cathe- 
drals, but most men found in their beauty an additional reason 
to praise God. 

The Gothic cathedral, in fact, perfectly expressed the religious 
spirit of the Middle Ages. For its erection kings and nobles 
offered costly gifts. The common people, when 
they had no money to give, contributed their labor, 
each man doing what he could to carry upward the 
walls and towers and to perfect every part of God's dwelling. 
The interior of such a cathedral, with its vast nave rising in 
swelling arches to the vaulted roof, its clustered columns, its 
glowing windows, and infinite variety of ornamentation, forms 
the most awe-inspiring sanctuary ever raised by man. It is 
a prayer, a hymn, a sermon in stone. 

^ For the pointed arch see the view of Melrose Abbey (page 664). 



Gargoyles on the Cathedral of 
Notre Dame, Paris 

Strange, grotesque figures and faces of stone, used 
as ornaments of Gothic buildings and as spouts to 
carry off rain water. They represent beasts, demons, 
and other creations of medieval fancy. 



The cathedral 
as a religious 
edifice 



S66 



Medieval Civilization 



Gothic architecture, though at first confined to churches, 
came to be used for other buildings. Among the monuments of 
The secular the secular Gothic are beautiful town halls, guild 
Gothic halls, markets, and charming private houses.^ But 

the cathedral remained the best expression of the Gothic style. 

203. Education; the Universities 

Not less important than the Gothic cathedrals for the under- 
standing of medieval civiHzation were the universities. They 
Common grew out of the monastic and cathedral schools 
schools where boys were trained to become monks or priests. 

Such schools had been created or restored by Charlemagne.^ 
The teaching, which lay entirely in the hands of the clergy, was 
elementary in character. Pupils learned enough Latin grammar 
to read religious books, if not always to understand them, and 
enough music to follow the services of the Church. They also 
studied arithmetic by means of the awkward Roman notation, 
received a smattering of astronomy, and sometimes gained a 
little knowledge of such subjects as geography, law, and phi- 
losophy. Besides these monastic and cathedral schools, others 
were maintained by the guilds. Boys who had no regular school- 
ing often received instruction from the parish priest of the vil- 
lage or town. Illiteracy was common enough in medieval 
times, but the mass of the people were by no means entirely 
uneducated. 

Between 1150 and 1500 a.d. at least eighty universities were 
established in western Europe. Some speedily became extinct, 
Rise of but there are still about fifty European institutions 

universities learning which started in the Middle Ages. The 
earliest universities did not look to the state or to some princely 
benefactor for their foundation. They arose, as it were, spon- 
taneously. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries Europe felt 
the thrill of a great intellectual revival. It was stimulated by 
intercourse with the highly cultivated Arabs in Spain, Sicily, 
and the East, and with the Greek scholars of Constantinople 
during the crusades. The desire for instruction became so 

1 See the illustrations, pages 550, 551. 2 See page 310. 



Education; the Universities 



567 



general that the common schools could not satisfy it. Other 
schools were then opened in the cities and to them flocked eager 
learners from every quarter. 

How easily a university might grow up about the personality 
of some eminent teacher is shown by the career of Abelard. The 
eldest son of a noble family in Brittany, Abelard p^^^^. Abelard 
would naturally have entered upon a military 1079-1142 
career, but he chose instead the life of a scholar ^' ^' 
and the contests of debate. When still a young man he came 
to Paris and attended the lectures given by a master of the 
cathedral school of Notre Dame. Before long he had over- 
come his instructor in discussion, thus estabUshing his own 
reputation. At the early age of twenty-two Abelard himself 
set up as a lecturer. Few teachers have ever attracted so large 
and so devoted a following. His lecture room under the shadow 
of the great cathedral was filled with a crowd of youths and 
men drawn from all countries. 

The fame of Abelard led to an increase of masters and students 
at Paris and so paved the way for the estabhshment of the uni- 
versity there, later in the twelfth century. Paris University 
soon became such a center of learning, particularly °^ ^^^^ 
in theology and philosophy, that a medieval writer referred to it 
as "the mill where the world's corn is ground, and the hearth 
where its bread is baked." The university of Paris, in the time 
of its greatest prosperity, had over five thousand students. It 
furnished the model for the English university of Oxford, as 
well as for the learned institutions of Scotland, Denmark, 
Sweden, and Germany. 

The institutions of learning in southern Europe were 
modeled, more or less, upon the university of Bologna. 
At this Italian city, in the middle of the twelfth university 
century, a celebrated teacher named Irnerius Bologna 
gathered about him thousands of pupils for the study of the 
Justinian code.^ The university developed out of his law 
school. Bologna was the center from which the Roman sys- 
tem of jurisprudence made its way into France, Germany, 

1 See pages 207, 331. 



568 



Medieval Civilization 



and other Continental countries. From Bologna, also, came 
the monk Gratian, who drew up the accepted text-book of 
canon law, as followed in all Church courts.^ What Roman 
law was to the Empire canon law was to the Papacy. 

The word ''university"^ meant at first simply a union or 
association. In the Middle Ages all artisans were organized in 
University guilds,^ and when masters and pupils associated 
organization themselves for teaching and study they naturally 
copied the guild form. This was the more necessary since the 
student body included so many foreigners, who found protec- 
tion against annoyances only as members of a guild. 

Like a craft guild a university consisted of masters (the 
professors), who had the right to teach, and students, both ele- 
Degrees mentary and advanced, who corresponded to ap- 
prentices and journeymen. After several years of 
study a student who had passed part of his examination became 
a "bachelor of arts" and might teach certain elementary sub- 
jects to those beneath him. Upon the completion of the full 
course — usually six years in length — the bachelor took his 
final examinations and, if he passed them, received the cov- 
eted degree of "master of arts." But as is the case to-day, 
many who attended the universities never took a degree 
at all. 

A university of the Middle Ages did not need an expensive 
collection of libraries, laboratories, and museums. Its only 
The teachers ^^^^^^^^7 equipment consisted in lecture rooms 
for the professors. Not even benches or chairs 
were required. Students often sat on the straw-strewn floors. 
The high price of manuscripts compelled professors to give all 
instruction by lectures. This method of teaching has been 
retained in modern universities, since even the printed book is a 
poor substitute for a scholar's inspiring words. 

The universities being under the protection of the Church, it 

^, , was natural that those who attended them should 
The students , 

possess some of the privileges of clergymen. Stu- 
dents were not required to pay taxes or to serve in the army. 

^ See page 444. 2 Latin universiias. 3 See page 534. 



Education; the Universities 



569 



They also enjoyed the right of trial in their own courts. This 
was an especially valuable privilege, for medieval students 
were constantly getting into trouble with the city authorities. 
The sober annals of many a university are relieved by tales of 
truly Homeric conflicts between Town and Gown. When the 
students were dissatisfied with their treatment in one place, it 




View of New College, Oxford 

New College, despite its name, is one of the oldest of the Oxford collegiate foundations. 
It was established in 1370 a.d. by William of Wykeham. The illustration shows the chapel, 
the cloisters, consecrated in 1400 A.D., and the detached tower, a tall, massive structure on 
the line of the city wall. 

was always easy for them to go to another university. Some- 
times masters and scholars made off in a body. Oxford appears 
to have owed its existence to a large migration of English stu- 
dents from Paris; Cambridge arose as the result of a migration 
from Oxford; and the German university of Leipzig sprang from 
that of Prague in Bohemia. 

The members of a university usually lived in a number of 
colleges. These seem to have been at first little more than 
lodging-houses, where poor students were cared for ^^jj^ggg 
at the expense of some benefactor. In time, how- 
ever, as the colleges increased in wealth, through the gifts made 
to them, they became centers of instruction under the direction 



570 



Medieval Civilization 



of masters. At Oxford and Cambridge, where the collegiate 

system has been retained to the present time, each college has its 

separate buildings and enjoys the privilege of self-government. 

The studies in a medieval university were grouped under the 

four faculties of arts, theology, law, and 

„ medicine. The first-named 

Faculties . ^ , , 

faculty taught the seven 

liberal arts," that is, grammar, rhetoric, 
logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, 
and music. They formed a legacy from 
old Roman education. Theology, law, 
and medicine then, as now, were pro- 
fessional studies, taken up after the com- 
pletion of the Arts course. Owing to the 
constant movement of students from one 
university to another, each institution 
tended to specialize in one or more sub- 
jects. Thus, Paris came to be noted for 
theology, Montpellier, Padua, and Salerno 
for medicine, and Orleans, Bologna, and 
Salamanca for law. 




Tower or Magdalen 
College, Oxford 

Magdalen (pronounced 
Maudlin) is perhaps the 
most beautiful college in 
Oxford. The bell tower 
stands on High Street, the 
principal thoroughfare of 
Oxford, and adjoins Mag- 
dalen Bridge, built across 
the Cherwell. Begun in 
1492 A.D.; completed in 
1505 A.D. From its sum- 
mit a Latin hymn is sung 
every year on the morning 
of May Day. This grace- 
ful tower has been several 
times imitated in American 
collegiate structures. 



204. Scholasticism 



Theological 
study 



Theology formed the chief subject of 
instruction in most medieval universities. 

Nearly all the celebrated 
scholars of the age were theo- 
logians. They sought to arrange the doc- 
trines of the Church in systematic and 
reasonable form, in order to answer those 
great questions concerning the nature of 
God and of the soul which have always 
occupied the human mind. For this pur- 
pose it was necessary to call in the aid of 
philosophy. The union of theology and philosophy produced 
what is known as scholasticism.^ 

1 The method of the school (Latin schola) . 



INTERIOR OF KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE 



The chief architectural ornament of King's College, founded by King Henry VI, is the chapel 
in the Gothic perpendicular style. This building was begun in 1446 a.d., but was not completed 
until nearly seventy years later. The finest features of the interior are the fan-vaulting which 
extends throughout the chapel, the stained-glass windows, and the wooden organ screen. 



Scholasticism 



571 



The scholastics were loyal children of the Church and did not 
presume to question her teaching in matters of religion. They 
held that faith precedes reason. "The Christian," Abelard and 
it was said, "ought to advance to knowledge freedom of 
through faith, not come to faith through knowl- *^°^sht 
edge." The briUiant Abelard, with his keenly critical mind, 
found what he considered a flaw in this position: on many sub- 
jects the authorities themselves disagreed. To show this he 
wrote a little book called Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), setting 
forth the conflicting opinions of the Church Fathers on one 
hundred and fifty-eight points of theology. In such cases how 
could truth be reached unless one reasoned it out for oneself? 
^'Constant questioning," he declared, "is the key to wisdom. 
. . . Through doubting we come to inquiry and through 
inquiry we perceive the truth." But this reliance on the unaided 
human reason as a means of obtaining knowledge did not meet 
with approval, and Abelard's views were condemned as unsound. 
Abelard, indeed, was a man in advance of his age. Freedom of 
thought had to wait many centuries before its rights should be 
acknowledged. 

The philosophy on which the scholastics relied was chiefly 
that of Aristotle.^ Christian Europe read him at first in Latin 
translations from the Arabic, but versions were study of 
later made from Greek copies found in Constanti- Aristotle 
nople and elsewhere in the East. This revival of Aristotle, 
though it broadened men's minds by acquainting them with the 
ideas of the greatest of Greek thinkers, had serious drawbacks. 
It discouraged rather than favored the search for fresh truth. 
Many scholastics were satisfied to appeal to Aristotle's author- 
ity, rather than take the trouble of finding out things for them- 
selves. The story is told of a medieval student who, having 
detected spots in the sun, announced his discovery to a learned 
man. "My son," said the latter, "I have read Aristotle many 
times, and I assure you there is nothing of the kind mentioned 
by him. Be certain that the spots which you have seen are in 
your eyes and not in the sun." 

1 See pages 275 and 383. 



572 



Medieval Civilization 



There were many famous scholastics, or schoolmen," but 
easily the foremost among them was the Italian monk, Thomas 
St Thomas Aquinas. He taught at Paris, Cologne, Rome, and 
Aquinas, Bologna, and became so celebrated for learning 
1227-1274 as to known as the ''Angelic Doctor." Though 
Aquinas died at an early age, he left behind him 
no less than eighteen folio volumes. His Summa Theologies 
("Compendium of Theology"), as the name indicates, gathered 
up all that the Middle Ages believed of the relations between 
God and man. The Roman Church has placed him among 
her saints and still recommends the study of his writings as 
the foundation of all sound theology. 

Enough has been said to show that the method of study in 
medieval universities was not that which generally obtains 
.pjjg to-day. There was almost no original research, 

scholastic Law students memorized the Justinian code, 
method Medical students learned anatomy and physiol- 
ogy from old Greek books, instead of in the dissecting room. 
Theologians and philosophers went to the Bible, the Church 
Fathers, or Aristotle for the solution of all problems. They 
often debated the most subtle questions, for instance, "Can 
God ever know more than He knows that He knows?" 
Mental gymnastics of this sort furnished a good training in 
logic, but added nothing to the sum of human knowledge. 
Scholasticism, accordingly, fell into disrepute, in proportion 
as men began to substitute scientific observation and experi- 
ment for speculation. 

205. Science and Magic 

Not all medieval learning took the form of scholasticism. 
The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were marked by a healthy 
Scientific interest in science. Long encyclopedias, written 
inventions jj^ Latin, collected all available information about 
the natural world. The study of physics made conspicuous 
progress, partly as a result of Arab influence. Various scientific 
inventions, including magnifying glasses and clocks, were worked 



Science and Magic 



573 




Roger Bacon 



out. The mariner's compass, perhaps derived from the Arabs, 
also came into general use.^ 

As representative of this scientific interest we may take the 
EngHshman, Roger Bacon. He studied at Paris, where his 
attainments secured for Roger Bacon, 
him the title of the ' ' Won- about 1214- 
derful Doctor," and lec- 
tured at Oxford. At a period when 
Aristotle's influence was unbounded. 
Bacon turned away from scholastic 
philosophy to mathematics and the 
sciences. No great discoveries were 
made by him, but it is interesting to 
read a passage in one of his works 
where some modern inventions are 
distinctly foreseen. In time, he wrote, 
ships will be moved without rowers, 
and carriages will be propelled without animals to draw them. 
Machines for flying will also be constructed, "wherein a man 
sits revolving some engine by which artificial wings are made 
to beat the air like a flying bird." Even in Bacon's day it 
would appear that men were trying to make steamboats, au- 
tomobiles, and aeroplanes. 

The discovery of gunpowder, a compound of saltpeter, char- 
coal, and sulphur, has often been attributed to Bacon, probably 
incorrectly. Bacon and other men of his time 
seem to have been familiar with the composition 
of gunpowder, but they regarded it as merely a sort of firework, 
producing a sudden and brilliant flame. They little suspected 
that in a confined space the expansive power of its gases could 
be used to hurl projectiles. Gunpowder was occasionally manu- 
factured during the fourteenth century, but for a long time it 
made more noise than it did harm. Small brass cannon, throw- 
ing stone balls, began at length to displace the medieval siege 
weapons, and still later muskets took the place of the bow, the 
cross-bow, and the pike. The revolution in the art of warfare 

1 See page 6i8. 



Gimpowder 



574 



Medieval Civilization 



introduced by gunpowder had vast importance. It destroyed 
the usefulness of the castle and enabled the peasant to fight the 
mailed knight on equal terms. Gunpowder, accordingly, must 
be included among the forces which brought about the down- 
fall of feudalism. 

The study of chemistry also engaged the attention of medieval 
investigators. It was, however, much mixed up with alchemy, 
Chemistry a false Science which the Middle Ages had received 
and alchemy fj-^j^ ^j^g Greeks, and they, in turn, from the 
Egyptians. The alchemists believed that minerals possessed a 
real hfe of their own and that they were continually developing 
in the ground toward the state of gold, the perfect metal. It 
was necessary, therefore, to discover the "philosopher's stone," 
which would turn all metals into gold. The alchemists never 
found it, but they learned a good deal about the various metals 
and discovered a number of compounds and colors. In this 
way alchemy contributed to the advance of chemistry. 

Astronomy in the Middle Ages was the most advanced of any 
natural science, though the telescope and the Copernican theory ^ 
Astronomy were as yet in the future. Astronomy, the wise 
and astrology , mother, had a foolish daughter, astrology, the origin 
of which can be traced back to Babylonia.^ Medieval students 
no longer regarded the stars as divine, but they believed that 
the natural world and the life of men were controlled by celestial 
influences. Hence astrologers professed to predict the fate of 
a person from the position of the planets at the time of his birth. 
Astrological rules were also drawn from the signs of the zodiac. 
A child born under the sign of the Lion will be courageous; one 
born under the Crab will not go forward well in hfe; one born 
under the Waterman will probably be drowned, and so forth. 
Such fancies seem absurd enough, but in the Middle Ages 
educated people entertained them. 

Alchemy and astrology were not the only instances of medie- 
Medieval val credulity. The most improbable stories found 
credulity ready acceptance. Roger Bacon, for instance, 
thought that "flying dragons" still existed in Europe and that 

1 See pages 133 and 608. » See page 53. 



Science and Magic 



575 



eating their flesh lengthened human hfe. Works on natural 
history soberly described the lizard-like salamander, which dwelt 
in fire, and the phoenix, a bird which, after hving for five hun- 
dred years, burned itself to death and then rose again full grown 
from the ashes. Another fabulous creature was the unicorn, 
with the head and body of a horse, the hind legs of an antelope, 
the beard of a goat, and a long, sharp horn set in the middle of 
the forehead. Various plants and minerals were also credited 
with marvelous powers. Thus, the nasturtium, used as a lini- 
ment, would keep one's hair from falHng out, and the sapphire, 
when powdered and mked with milk, would heal ulcers and cure 
headache. Such quaint 
beliefs linger to-day 
among uneducated 
people, even in civihzed 
lands. 

Magicians of every sort 

flourished in the Middle 

Ages. Onei- „ . . 
° Magicians 

romancers^ 

took omens from dreams. 
Palmists read fortunes in 
the lines and irregularities 




IMagician Rescued from the De\tl 

Miniature in a thirteenth-century manuscript Ln 
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The Devil, at- 
tempting to seize a magician who had formed a 
pact with him, is prevented by a lay brother. 



of the hand. Necroman- 
cers 2 professed to reveal the future by pretended communi- 
cations with departed spirits. Other magicians made tahsmans 
or lucky objects to be worn on the person, mirrors in which 
the images of the dead or the absent were reflected, and vari- 
ous powders which, when mixed with food or drink, would 
inspire hatred or affection in the one consuming them. 
Indeed, it would be easy to draw up a long Hst of the 
defaces by which practitioners of magic made a hving at the 
expense of the ignorant and the superstitious. 

206. Popular Superstitions 

Many medieval superstitions are preserved in folk tales, or 
"fairy stories." Every child now reads these tales in books, 

1 Greek oneiros, "dream." 2 Greek nekros, "corpse." 



57^ Medieval Civilization 

but until the nineteenth century very few of them had been 

„ „ , collected and written down.^ They lived on the 
Folk tales 

hps of the people, being told by mothers and nurses 
to children and by young and old about the firesides during the 
long winter evenings. Story-telling formed one of the chief 
amusements of the Middle Ages. 

The fairies who appear so commonly in folk tales are known 
by different names. They are bogies, brownies, goblins, pixies, 
Fairies kobolds (in Germany), trolls (in Denmark), and 

so on. The Celts, especially, had a lively faith in 
fairies, and it was from Wales, Scotland, and Ireland that many 
stories about them became current in Europe after the tenth 
century. Some students have explained the belief in fairies 
as due to memories of an ancient pygmy people dwelling in 
underground homes. But most of these supernatural beings 
seem to be the descendants of the spirits and demons which in 
savage fancy haunt the world. 

A comparison of European folk tales shows that fairies have 
certain characteristics in common. They live in palaces under- 
Character- neath the ground, from which they emerge at twi- 
istics light to dance in mystic circles. They are ruled 

of fairies kings and queens and are possessed of great 

wealth. Though usually invisible, they may sometimes be seen, 
especially by people who have the faculty of perceiving spirits. 
To mortals the fairies are generally hostile, leading wanderers 
astray, often blighting crops and cattle, and shooting arrows 
which carry disease and death. They are constantly on the 
watch to carry off human beings to their realm. A prisoner 
must be released at the end of a certain time, unless he tastes 
fairy food, in which event he can never return. Children in 
cradles are frequently snatched away by the fairies, who leave, 
instead, imps of their own called "changelings." A changeling 
may always be recognized by its peevishness and backwardness 
in learning to walk and speak. If well treated, the fairies will 

1 Charles Perrault's Tales of Passed Times appeared at Paris in 1697 a.d. It 
included the now-familiar stories of "Bluebeard," "Cinderella," "Sleeping Beauty, " 
and "Little Red Riding Hood." In 181 2 a.d. the brothers Grimm published their 
Household Tales, a collection of stories current in Germany. 



Popular Superstitions 



577 



sometimes show their gratitude by bestowing on their favorites 
health, wealth, and long life. Lucky the child who can count 
on a "fairy god-mother." 

Stories of giants are common in folk tales. Giants are often 
represented as not only big but also stupid, and as easily over- 
come by keen-witted human foes like ''Jack the Giants 
Giant-killer." It may be that traditions of pre- ^^res 
historic peoples have sometimes given birth to legends of giants. 
Another source of stories concerning them has been the dis- 
covery of huge fossil bones, such as those of the mammoth or 
mastodon, which were formerly supposed to be bones of gigantic 
men. The ogres, who sometimes figure in folk tales, are giants 
with a taste for human flesh. They recall the cannibals of the 
savage world. 

Werewolves were persons who, by natural gift or magic art, 
were thought to have the power of turning themselves for a time 

into wild beasts (generally wolves or bears). In 

• 11 1 ini 11 Werewolves 

this animal shape they ravaged nocks and de- 
voured young children. A werewolf was said to sleep only two 
nights in the month and to spend the rest of the time roam- 
ing the woods and fields. Trials of persons accused of being 
werewolves were held in France as late as the end of the six- 
teenth century. Even now the belief is found in out-of-the- 
way parts of Europe. 

Another medieval superstition was that of the evil eye. 
According to this belief, certain persons could bewitch, injure, 

and kill by a glance. Children and domestic ani- 

. The evil eye 

mals were thought to be particularly susceptible 

to the effects of "fascination." In order to guard against it 

charms of various sorts, including texts from the Bible, were 

carried about. The behef in the evil eye came into Europe from 

pagan antiquity. It survived the Middle Ages and lingers yet 

among uneducated people. 

The superstitions relating to werewolves and the evil eye are 

particular forms of the belief in witchcraft, or , 

Witchcraft 

"black magic." The Middle Ages could not escape 

this delusion, which was firmly held by the Greeks and Romans 



578 



Medieval Civilization 



and other ancient peoples. Witchcraft had, indeed, a pre- 
historic origin and the belief in it still prevails in savage 
society. 

Witches and wizards were supposed to have sold themselves 
to the Devil, receiving in return the power to work magic. They 
Features of could change themselves or others into animals, 
European they had charms against the hurt of weapons, they 
witchcraft could raise storms and destroy crops, and they 
could convey thorns, pins, and other objects into their victims' 




The Witches' Sabbath 



bodies, thus causing sickness and death. At night they rode on 
broomsticks through the air and assembled in some lonely place 
for feasts, dances, and wild revels. At these ''Witches' Sab- 
baths," as they were called, the Devil himself attended and 
taught his followers their diabolic arts. There were various 
tests for the discovery of witches and wizards, the most usual 
being the ordeal by water.^ 

The numerous trials and executions for witchcraft form a dark 
page in history. Thousands of harmless old men and women 

1 See page 420. 



Popular Amusements and Festivals 



Unlucky days 



were put to death on the charge of being leagued with the 
Devil. Even the most intelligent and humane Witchcraft 
people beheved in the reahty of witchcraft and persecutions 
found a justification for its punishment in the Scriptural 
command, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live."^ The 
witch epidemic which broke out in America during the seven- 
teenth century, reaching its height at Salem, Massachusetts, was 
simply a reflection of the European fear and hatred of witches. 

The Middle Ages inherited from antiquity the observance of 
unlucky days. They went under the name of "Egyptian 
days," so called because it was held that on one 
of them the plagues had been sent to devastate 
the land of Egypt and on another Pharaoh and his host had 
been swallowed up in the Red Sea. At least twenty-four days 
in the year were regarded as very unlucky. At such times one 
ought not to buy and sell, to build a house, to plant a field, to 
travel or, in fact, to undertake anything at all important. After 
the sixteenth century the belief in unlucky days declined, but 
there still exists a prejudice against fishermen starting out to 
fish, or seamen to take a voyage, or landsmen a journey, or do- 
mestic servants to enter a new place, on a Friday. 

207. Popular Amusements and Festivals 

It is pleasant to turn from the superstitions of the Middle 
Ages to the games, 

sports, ^ , 

^ Indoor games 

and fes- 
tivals which helped 
to make life agree- 
able alike for rich 
and poor, for nobles 
and peasants. Some 
indoor games are of 
eastern origin. 
Thus chess, with 
which European peoples seem to have become acquainted as 






Chess Pieces of Charlemagne 

Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris' 
The figures are carved in ivory. 



1 Exodus, xxii, i8. 



58o 



Medieval Civilization 



early as the tenth century/ arose in India as a war game. On 
each side a king and his general, with chariots, cavalry, ele- 
phants, and infantry, met in battle array. These survive in 
the rooks, knights, bishops, and pawns of the modern game. 
Checkers is a sort of simphfied chess, in which the pieces are 
all pawns, till they get across the board and become kings. 
Playing cards are another Oriental invention. They were 
introduced into Europe in the fourteenth century, either by 
the Arabs or the gypsies. Their first use seems to have been 
for telling fortunes. 

Many outdoor games are derived from those played in medie- 
val times. How one kind of game may become the parent of 
Outdoor many others is seen in the case of the ball-play, 
games 'pjjg ancients tossed and caught balls as children 

do now. They also had a game in which each side tried to secure 
the ball and throw it over the adversary's goal line. This game 
lasted on into the Middle Ages, and from it football has de- 
scended. The ancients seem never to have used a stick or bat 
in their ball-play. The Persians, however, began to play ball 
on horseback, using a long mallet for the purpose, and intro- 
duced their new sport throughout Asia. Under the Tibetan 
name of pulu ("ball") it found its way into Europe. When 
once the mallet had been invented for use on horseback, it 
could be easily used on foot, and so polo gave rise to the 
various games in which balls are hit with bats, including 
tennis, hockey, golf, cricket, and croquet. 

The difference between our ideas of what constitutes "sport" 
and those of our ancestors is shown by the popularity of baiting. 
Baiting twelfth century bulls, bears, and even horses 

were baited. Cock-fighting formed another com- 
mon amusement. It was not till the nineteenth century that 
an English society for the prevention of cruelty to animals 
succeeded in getting a law passed which forbade these cruel 
sports. Most other European countries have now followed 
England's example. 

No account of life in the Middle Ages can well omit some 

1 See page 428. 



Popular Amusements and Festivals 581 



reference to the celebration of festivals. For the peasant and 
artisan they provided relief from physical exertion, p^^^^^ 
and for all classes of society the pageants, pro- 
cessions, sports, feasts, and merry-makings which accompanied 
them furnished welcome diversion. Medieval festivals included 
not only those 
of the Christian 
Year/ but also 
others which had 
come down from 
p r e-C h r i stian 
times. 

Many festivals 
not of Christian 
origin were derived 
from the ceremo- 
nies with which the heathen peoples of Europe had been 
accustomed to mark the changes of the seasons. Seasonal 
Thus, April Fool's Day formed a rehc of festivities festivals 
held at the vernal equinox. May Day, another festival of 
spring, honored the spirits of trees and of all budding vegetation. 
The persons who acted as May kings and May queens repre- 
sented these spirits. According to the original custom a new 
May tree was cut down in the forest every year, but later a 
permanent May pole was set up on the village common. On 
Midsummer Eve (June 23), which marked the summer solstice, 
came the fire festival, when people built bonfires and leaped 
over them, walked in procession with torches round the fields, 
and rolled burning wheels down the hillsides. These curious 
rites may have been once connected with sun worship. Hallow 
Eve, so called from being the eve of All Saints' Day (November 
i), also seems to have been a survival of a heathen celebration. 
On this night witches and fairies were supposed to assemble. 
Hallow Eve does not appear to have been a season for pranks 
and jokes, as is its present degenerate form. Even the festival 
of Christmas, coming at the winter solstice, kept some heathen 

1 See page 346. 




Bear Baiting 

From the Luttrell Psalter. 



582 



Medieval Civilization 



features, such as the use of mistletoe with which Celtic priests 
once decked the altars of their gods. The Christmas tree, 
however, is not a relic of heathenism. It seems to have come 
into use as late as the seventeenth century. 

Young and old took part in the dances which accompanied 
village festivals. Very popular in medieval England was the 
The Morris Morris dance. The name, a corruption of Moor- 
dance jgj^^ refers to its origin in Spain. The Morris dance 
was especially associated with May Day and was danced round 
a May pole to a hvely and capering step. The performers 
represented Robin Hood, Maid Marian, his wife, Tom the 

Piper, and other 
traditional charac- 
ters. On their 
garments they 
wore bells tuned 
to different notes, 
so as to sound in 
harmony. 

Mumming had 
a particular asso- 
ciation with Christ- 
m a s . Mummers 




Mumming 



Mummers 

From a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. 
It was written and illuminated in the reign of Edward III. 



wer e 
bands 
of men and women 
who disguised 
themselves in 



masks and skins of animals and then serenaded people outside 
their houses. Oftentimes the mummers acted out little plays 
in which Father Christmas, Old King Cole, and St. George 
were familiar figures. 

Besides these village amusements, many plays of a religious 
character came into vogue during the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries. The earliest were the miracle plays. 
They presented in dramatic form scenes from the 
Bible and stories of the saints or martyrs. The actors at first 



Miracle plays 



Popular Amusements and Festivals 583 

were priests, and the stage was the church itself or the church- 
yard. This rehgious setting did not prevent the introduction 
of clowns and buffoons. After a time the miracle play passed 
from the clergy to the guilds. All the guilds of a town usually 




A IMiRACLE Play at Coventry, England 

The rude platform on wheels, which served as a stage, was drawn by apprentices to the 
market place. Each guild had its own stage. 



gave an exhibition once a year. Each guild presented a single 
scene in the story. An exhibition might last for several days 
and have as many as fifty scenes, beginning at Creation and 
ending with Doomsday.^ 

The miracle plays were followed by the "moralities." They 
dealt with the struggle between good and evil, rather than with 

■ The great Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau in Germany is the modem survival 
and representative of this medieval religious drama. 



5^4 



Medieval Civilization 



Morality 
plays 




Dwellings 



theology. Characters such as Charity, Faith, Prudence, 
Riches, Confession, and Death appeared and en- 
acted a story intended to teach moral lessons. ^ 
Out of the rude "morality" and its predecessor, the miracle 
play, has grown the drama of modern times. 

208. Manners and Customs 

A previous chapter ^ described some features of domestic 
life in castle and village during the age of feudahsm. In Eng- 

land, 
where 

the Norman kings 
discouraged castle 
building, the man- 
or house formed 
the ordinary resi- 
dence of the no- 
3 bility. Even in 
Continental Eu- 
rope many castles 
were gradually 
made over into 
manor houses after 
the cessation of feudal warfare. A manor house, however, was 
only less bare and inconvenient than a castle. It was still 
poorly lighted, ill- ventilated, and in winter scarcely warmed by 
the open wood fires. Among the improvements of the four- 
teenth century were the building of a fireplace at one or both 
ends of the manor hall, instead of in the center, and the substi- 
tution of glass windows for wooden shutters or oiled paper. 
People in the Middle Ages, even the well-to-do, got along with 
little furniture. The great hall of a manor house 
contained a long dining table, with benches used 
at meals, and a few stools. The family beds often occupied 



Manor House in Shropshire, England 

Built in the twelfth century. 



Furniture 



1 Everyman, one of the best of the morality plays, has recently been revived 
before large audiences. 

2 Chapter xviii. 



Manners and Customs 



585 



curtained recesses in the walls, but guests might have to sleep 
on the floor of the manor hall. Servants often slept in the 
stables. Few persons could afford rugs to cover the floor; the 
poor had to put up with rushes. Utensils were not numerous, 




Interior of an English Manor House 

Shows the great hall of a manor house at Penshurst, Kent. The screen with the 
minstrels' gallery over it is seen at the end of the haU, and in the center, the brazier 
for fire. Built about 1340 a.d. 



and articles of glass and silver were practicaUy unknown, except 
in the houses of the rich. Entries in wills show the high value 
set upon a single spoon. 

The pictures in old manuscripts give us a good idea of medieval 
dress. Naturally it varied with time and place, and according 
to the social position of the wearer. Sometimes ^^g^^jj^^ 
laws were passed, without much result, to regulate 
the quality, shape, and cost of the costumes to be worn by dif- 
ferent orders of society. The morahsts of the age were shocked, 
then as now, when tightly fitting garments, which showed the 
outlines of the body, became fashionable. The inconvenience 
of putting them on led to the use of buttons and buttonholes. 
Women's headdresses were often of extraordinary height and 



586 



Medieval Civilization 



shape. Not less remarkable were the pointed shoes worn by- 
men. The points finally got so long that they hindered walk- 
ing, unless tied by a ribbon to the knees. 




CosTTOiES OF Ladies during the Later Middle Ages 



, The medieval noble of the twelfth century as a rule went clean 
shaven. To wear a beard was regarded as a sign of effeminacy 
Beards ^ rnan. The Bayeux Tapestry/ for instance, 

shows the Normans mostly clean-shaven, while the 
English wear only moustaches. The introduction of long beards 
seems to have been due to contact with the East during the 
crusading period. 

It is a common error that bathing was seldom practiced in 
the Middle Ages. In the country districts river, lake, or pool 
Baths and met the needs of people used to outdoor life. The 
bathing ^[j. vapor baths of the Byzantines were 

adopted by the Moslems and later, through the Moors and cru- 
saders, were made known to western Europe. After the begin- 
ning of the thirteenth century few large cities lacked public 
bathing places. 

Medieval cookbooks show that people of means had all sorts 
of elaborate and expensive dishes. Dinner at a nobleman's 
house might include as many as ten or twelve courses, mostly 

1 See the illustration, page 408. 



Manners and Customs 



587 



meats and game. Such things as hedgehogs, peacocks, spar- 
rows, and porpoises, which would hardly tempt ^^^^ 
the modern palate, were rehshed. Much use 
was made of spices in preparing meats and gravies, and also 
for flavoring wines. Over-eating was a common vice in the 
Middle Ages, but the open-air life and constant exercise en- 
abled men and women to digest the huge quantities of food 
they consumed. 

People in medieval times had no knives or forks and conse- 
quently ate with their fingers. Daggers also were employed to 
convey food to the mouth. Forks date from the Table 
end of the thirteenth century, but were adopted etiquette 
only slowly. As late as the sixteenth century German preach- 
ers condemned their use, for, said they, the Lord would not 
have given us fingers if he had wanted us to rely on forks. 
Napkins were another table convenience unknown in the Mid- 
dle Ages. 

In the absence of tea and coffee, ale and beer formed the 
drink of the common people. The upper classes regaled them- 
selves on costly 'uines. Drunkenness was as com- ^ . 

Drmking 

mon and as Httle reprobated as gluttony. The 
monotony of life in medieval Europe, when the nobles had httle 
to do but hunt and fight, may partly account for the prevaihng 
inebriety. But doubtless in large measure it was a Teutonic 
characteristic. The Northmen were hard drinkers, and of the 
ancient Germans a Roman writer states that ''to pass an entire 
day and night in drinking disgraces no one." ^ This habit 
of intoxication survived in medieval Germany, and the Anglo- 
Saxons and Danes introduced it into England. 

Our survey of the twehth and thirteenth centuries has now 
shown us that these two hundred years deserve to be caUed the 
central period of the Middle Ages. When the central 
Arabs had brought the culture of the Orient to period of the 
Spain and Sicily, when the Northmen after their ^^^'^^ ^^^^ 
wonderful expansion had settled down in Normandy, England, 
and other countries, and when the peoples of western Europe, 

1 Tacitus, Gennania, 22. 



588 



Medieval Civilization 



whether as peaceful pilgrims or as warlike crusaders, had visited 
Constantinople and the Holy Land, men's minds received a 
wonderful stimulus. The intellectual life of Europe was 
"speeded up," and the way was prepared for the even more 
rapid advance of knowledge in the fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries, as the Middle Ages passed into modern times. 

Studies 

I, Look up on the map between pages 358-359 the following places where 
Gothic cathedrals are found: Canterbury, York, SaUsbury, Reims, Amiens, Char- 
tres, Cologne, Strassburg, Burgos, Toledo, and Milan. 2. Look up on the map 
facing page 636 the location of the following medieval universities: Oxford, Mont- 
pelHer, Paris, Orleans, Cologne, Leipzig, Prague, Padua, and Salamanca. 3. Ex- 
plain the following terms: scholasticism; canon law; alchemy; troubadours; 
Provengal language; transept; choir; flying buttress; werewolf; and mumming. 

4. Who were St. Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Gratian, Irnerius, and Roger Bacon? 

5. Show how Latin served as an international language in the Middle Ages. Name 
two artificial languages which have been invented as a substitute for Latin. 

6. What is meant by saying that "French is a mere patois of Latin"? 7. In what 
parts of the world is EngUsh now the prevailing speech? 8. Why has Siegfried, 
the hero of the Nibelungenlied, been called the "Achilles of Teutonic legend"? 
9. What productions of medieval Uterature reflect aristocratic and democratic 
ideals, respectively? 10. Distinguish between the Romanesque and Gothic styles 
of architecture. WTiat is the origin of each term? 11. Compare the ground plans 
of a Greek temple (page 291), a Roman basilica (page 284), and a Gothic cathedral 
(page 562). 12. Contrast a Gothic cathedral with a Greek temple, particularly 
in regard to size, height, support of the roof, windows, and decorative features. 
13. Why is there some excuse for describing a Gothic bmlding as "a wall of glass 
with a roof of stone"? 14. Do you see any resemblance in structural features 
between a Gothic cathedral and a modern "sky-scraper"? 15. Mention some 
likenesses between medieval and modern universities. 16. Mention some im- 
portant subjects of instruction in modem universities which were not treated in 
those of the Middle Ages. 17. Why has scholasticism been called "a sort of Aris- 
totelian Christianity"? 18. Look up the original meaning of the words "jovial," 
* ' saturnine, " " mercurial, " " disastrous, " " contemplate, ' ' and ' ' consider. ' ' 

19. Show the indebtedness of chemistry to alchemy and of astronomy to astrology. 

20. Mention some common folk tales which illustrate medieval superstitions. 

21. Why was Friday regarded as a specially unlucky day? 22. Enumerate the 
most important contributions to civilization made during the Middle Ages. 



CHAPTER XXV 



THE RENAISSANCE! 

209. Meaning of the Renaissance 

The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, covering the later 
period of the Middle Ages, are commonly kilown as those of 
the Renaissance. This French word means Re- Later period 
birth or Revival. It is a convenient term for all of the 
the changes in society, law, and government, in ^^^^ 
science, philosophy, and religion, in literature and art which 
gradually transformed medieval civilization into that of modern 
times. 

The Renaissance, just because of its transitional character, 
cannot be exactly dated. Some Renaissance movements 
started before 1300 a.d. For instance, the study Limits of the 
of Roman law, as a substitute for Germanic cus- Renaissance 
toms, began toward the close of the eleventh century. The 
rise of European cities, with all that they meant for industry 
and commerce, belonged to about the same time. Other 
Renaissance movements, again, extended beyond 1500 a.d. 
Among these were the expansion of geographical knowledge, 
resulting from the discovery of the New World, and the revolt 
against the Papacy, known as the Protestant Reformation. 
The Middle Ages, in fact, came to an end at different times in 
different fields of human activity. 

The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to the rebirth 
or revival of men's interest in the hterature and art of classical 
antiquity. Italy was the original home of this original 
Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it home of the 
found widest acceptance, and there it reached its R®^^^^^^*^® 
highest development. From Italy the Renaissance gradually 
spread beyond the Alps, until it had made the round of western 
Europe. 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xix, "A Scholar of 
the Renaissance"; chapter xx, "Renaissance Artists." 

589 



590 



The Renaissance 



Italy, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, was a land 
particularly favorable to the growth of learning and the arts. 
Italian cities northern Italy the great cities of Milan, Pisa, 
of the Genoa, Florence, Venice, and many others had 

Renaissance ^^j-iy succeeded in throwing off their feudal bur- 
dens and had become independent, self-governing communities. 
Democracy flourished in them, as in the old Greek city-states. 
Noble birth counted for Httle; a man of abihty and ambition 
might rise to any place. The fierce party conflicts within their 
walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make hfe full, 
varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving 
manufactures made them prosperous. Wealth brought leisure, 
bred a taste for luxury and the refinements of life, and gave 
means for the gratification of that taste. People wanted to 
have about them beautiful pictures, statuary, furniture, 
palaces, and churches; and they rewarded richly the artists 
who could produce such things. It is not without significance 
that the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance was democratic, 
industrial, and wealthy Florence.^ 

Italy enjoyed another advantage over the other European 
countries in its nearness to Rome. Admiration for the ancient 
Influence of RoJ^^^n civilization, as expressed in literature, art, 
the classic and law, was felt by all Italians. Wherever they 
tradition looked, they were reminded of the great past which 
once had been theirs. Nor was the inheritance of Greece 
wholly lost. Greek traders and the descendants of Greek 
colonists in Italy still used their ancient language; all through 
the medieval centuries there were Italians who studied 
Greek. The classic tradition thus survived in Italy and 
defied oblivion. 

In the Middle Ages Italy formed a meeting place of several 
civilizations. Byzantine influence was felt both in 

Byzantine, 

Arabic, and the north and in the south. The conquest of Sicily 
Norman ^-j^e Arabs made the Italians familiar with the 

influence r , • i . i i 

science, art, and poetry of this cultivated people. 

After the Normans had established themselves in south- 

1 See page 545. 



GHIBERTI'S BRONZE DOORS AT FLORENCE 



The second or northern pair of bronze doors of the baptistery at Florence. Completed by 
Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1452 a.d., after twenty-seven years of labor. The ten panels represent 
scenes from Old Testament history. Michelangelo pronounced these magnificent creations 
worthy to be the gates of paradise. 




Interior 
ST. PETER'S, ROME 



St. Peter's, begun in 1506 a.d., was completed in 1667, according to the designs of Bramante, 
Raphael, Michelangelo, and other celebrated architects. It is the largest church in the world. 
The central aisle, nave, and choir measure about 600 feet in length; the great dome, 140 
feet in diameter, rises to a height of more than 400 feet. A double colonnade encircles the 
piazza in front of the church. The Vatican is seen to the right of St. Peter's. 



Revival of Learning in Italy 



591 



ern. Italy and Sicily, they in turn developed a brilhant civi- 
lization.^ From all these sources flowed streams of cultural 
influence which united in the Renaissance. 



210. Revival of Learning in Italy 



The hterature of Greece and Rome did not entirely disappear 
in western Europe after the Germanic invasions. The monas- 
tery and cathedral schools of the Middle Ages had rj.^^ classics 
nourished devoted students of ancient books. The in the 
Benedictine monks labored zealously in copying ^^^^ 
the works of pagan as well as Christian authors. The rise of 
universities made it possible for the student to pursue a fairly 
extended course in Latin hterature at 
more than one institution of learning. 
Greek hterature, however, was httle 
known in the West. The poems of 
Homer were read only in a brief Latin 
summary, and even Aristotle's writings 
were studied in Latin translations. 

Reverence for the classics finds con- 
stant expression in the writings of the 

Itahan poet Dante. He ^ 

. f T-1 Dante 
was a native of Florence, Alighieri, 

but passed most of his life 1265-1321 

in exile. Dante's most fa- 

T ,1 7-^. . ^ J J Dante ALicmERi 

mous work, the Divtne Comedy, describes 

an imaginary visit to the other world. 

Vergil guides him through the realms 

of Hell and Purgatory until he meets 

his lady Beatrice, the personification of love and purity, who 

conducts him through Paradise. The Divine Comedy gives in 

artistic verse an epitome of all that medieval men knew and 

hoped and felt: it is a mirror of the Middle Ages. At the 

same time it drew much of its inspiration from GriECO- 

Roman sources. Athens, for Dante, is the "hearth from which 




From a fresco, somewhat re- 
stored, ascribed to the contem- 
porary artist, Giotto. In the 
National Museum, Florence. 



1 See page 413. 



592 



The Renaissance 



the Italian 
language 



all knowledge glows"; Homer is the "loftiest of poets"; and 
Aristotle is the "master of those who know." This feeling for 
classical antiquity entitles Dante to rank as a prophet of the 
Renaissance. 

Dante exerted a noteworthy influence on the Italian language. 
He wrote the Divine Comedy, not in Latin, but in the vernacular 
Dante and Itahan as spoken in Florence. The popularity 
of this work helped to give currency to the Floren- 
tine dialect, and in time it became the literary 
language of Italy. Italian was the first of the Romance tongues 
to assume a national character. 

Petrarch, a younger contemporary of Dante, and like him a 
native of Florence, has been called the first modern scholar and 
man of letters. He devoted himself with 
Petrarch tireless energy to classical 
1304-1374 Studies. Writing to a friend, 

A D 

Petrarch declares that he 
has read Vergil, Horace, Livy, and 
Cicero, "not once, but a thousand 
times, not cursorily but studiously and 
intently, bringing to them the best 
powers of my mind. I tasted in the 
morning and digested at night. I 
quaffed as a boy, to ruminate as an 
old man. These works have become 
so familiar to me that they cling not 
to my memory merely, but to the very 
marrow of my bones." 
Petrarch himself composed many Latin works and did much 
to spread a knowledge of Latin authors. He traveled widely 
Petrarch Italy, France, and other countries, searching 

as a Latin everywhere for ancient manuscripts. When he 
revivalist found in one place two lost orations of Cicero 
and in another place a collection of Cicero's letters, he was 
transported with delight. He kept copyists in his house, at 
times as many as four, busily making transcripts of the man- 
uscripts that he had discovered or borrowed. Petrarch knew 




Petrarch 

From a miniature in the Lau 
rentian Library, Florence. 



Revival of Learning in Italy 



593 



almost no Greek. His copy of Homer, it is said, he often 
kissed, though he could not read it. 

Petrarch's friend and disciple, Boccaccio, was the first to 
bring to Italy manuscripts of the Iliad and the Odyssey, Having 
learned some Greek, he wrote out a translation Boccaccio, 
of those epic poems. But Boccaccio's fame to-day 1313-1375 
rests on the Decameron. It is a collection of one 
hundred stories written in Italian. They are supposed to be 
told by a merry company of men and women, who, during a 
plague at Florence, have retired to a villa in the country. The 
Decameron is the first important work in Italian prose. Many 
English writers, notably Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales^ 
have gone to it for ideas and plots. The modern short story 
may be said to date from Boccaccio. 

The renewed interest in Latin Hterature, due to Petrarch, 
Boccaccio, and others, was followed in the fifteenth century by 
the revival of Greek literature. In 1396 a.d. gt^dy of 
Chrysoloras, a scholar from Constantinople, began Greek in 
to lecture on Greek in the university of Florence. ^^^^ 
He afterwards taught in other Italian cities and further aided 
the growth of Hellenic studies by preparing a Greek grammar 
— the first book of its kind. From this time, and especially 
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d., many learned 
Greeks came to Italy, thus transplanting in the West the 
culture of the East. ''Greece had not perished, but had 
emigrated to Italy." 

To the scholars of the fifteenth century the classics opened 

up a new world of thought and fancy. They were delighted 

by the fresh, original, and human ideas which „ 

. Humanism 
they discovered in the pages of Homer, Plato, 

Cicero, Horace, and Tacitus. Their new enthusiasm for the 
classics came to be known as humanism,^ or culture. The 
Greek and Latin languages and literatures were henceforth the 
''humanities," as distinguished from the old scholastic phi- 
losophy and theology. 

1 See page 604. 

2 Latin humanitas, from homo, "man." 



594 



The Renaissance 



From Florence, as from a second Athens, humanism spread 
throughout Italy. At Milan and Venice, at Rome and Naples, 
Spread ^^^1 poring over the classics. A special 

of humanism feature of the age was the recovery of ancient 
in Italy manuscripts from monasteries and cathedrals, 

where they had often lain neglected and blackened with the 
dust of ages. Nearly all the Latin works now extant were 
brought to light by the middle of the fifteenth century. But 
it was not enough to recover the manuscripts: they had to be 
safely stored and made accessible to students. So libraries 
were established, professorships of the ancient languages were 
endowed, and scholars were given opportunities to pursue their 
researches. Even the popes shared in this zeal for humanism. 
One of them founded the Vatican Library at Rome, which has 
the most valuable collection of manuscripts in the world. At 
Florence the wealthy family of the Medici vied with the popes 
in the patronage of the new learning. 

211. Paper and Printing 

The revival of learning was greatly hastened when printed 
books took the place of manuscripts laboriously copied by 
Printed hand. Printing is a complicated process, and 

books many centuries were required to bring it to 

perfection. Both paper and movable type had to be 
invented. 

The Chinese at a remote period made paper from some fibrous 
material. The Arabs seem to have been the first to make linen 
Introduction paper out of flax and rags. The manufacture of 
of paper paper in Europe was first established by the 
Moors in Spain. The Arab occupation of Sicily introduced 
the art into Italy. Paper found a ready sale in Europe, be- 
cause papyrus and parchment, which the ancients had used as 
writing materials, were both expensive and heavy. Men now 
had a material moderate in price, durable, and one that would 
easily receive the impression of movable type. 

The first step in the development of printing was the use of 
engraved blocks. Single letters, separate words, and some- 



Paper and Printing 



595 



times entire pages of text were cut in hard wood or copper. 

When inked and apphed to writing material, Development 

they left a clear impression. The second step of movable 

was to cast the letters in separate pieces of 

metal, all of the same height and thickness. These could 

then be arranged in any desired way for printing. 

Movable type had ,been used for centuries by the 

Chinese, Japanese, and 

Koreans in ^ 

Gutenberg 

the East, 

and in Europe several 
printers have been cred- 
ited with their invention. 
A German, Johann Guten- 
berg of Mainz, set up the 
first printing press with 
movable type about 1450 
A.D., and from it issued 
the first printed book. 
This was a Latin transla- 
tion of the Bible. 

The new art quickly 
spread throughout Chris- 
tian Europe. It met an 
especially warm welcome 
in Italy, where people felt 
so keen a Aldus and 
desire for ^axton 
reading and instruction. By the end of the fifteenth century 
Venice alone had more than two hundred printing presses. 
Here Aldus Manutius maintained a famous establishment for 
printing Greek and Latin classics. In 1476 a.d. the English 
printer, William Caxton, set up his wooden presses within the 
precincts of Westminster Abbey. To him we owe editions of 
Chaucer's poems. Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur,^ Msop^s 
Fables, and many other works. 

1 See page 560. 




An Early Printing Press 

Enlarged from the printer's mark of I. B. 
Ascensius. Used on the title pages of books printed 
by him, 1507-1535 a.d. « 



596 



The Renaissance 



The books printed in the fifteenth century go by the name of 
incunabula} Of the seven or eight miUion volumes which 
Incunabula appeared before 1500 a.d., about thirty thousand 
are beheved to be still in existence. Many of 
these earhest books were printed in heavy, "black letter" 
type, an imitation of the characters used in monkish manu- 

Thenne beganne agayne the bataylle of the one parte/ And of the 
other Eneas ascryed to theym and sayd. Lordes why doo ye fyghte/ 
Ye knowe well that the couuenante ys deuysed and made/ That Turnus 
and I shall fyghte for you alle/ 

Facsimile or Part of Caxton's "^Eneid" (reduced) 

With the same passage in modern type. 

scripts. It is still retained for most books printed in Germany. 
The clearer and neater ''Roman" characters, resembling the 
letters employed for ancient Roman inscriptions, came into 
use in southern Europe and England. The Aldine press at 
Venice also devised ''italic" t3rpe, said to be modeled after 
Petrarch's handwriting, to enable the publisher to crowd more 
words on a page. 

The invention of printing has been called the greatest event 
in history. The statement is hardly too strong. It is easy to 
Importance see that printing immensely increased the supply 
of printing books. A hardworking copyist might produce, 

at the most, only a few volumes a year; a printing press could 
strike them off by the thousands. Not only more books, but 
also more accurate books, could be produced by printing. The 
old-time copyist, however skilful, was sure to make mistakes, 
sometimes of a serious character. No two copies of any manu- 
script were exactly alike. When, however, an entire edition 

1 A Latm word meaning ''cradle" or "birthplace," and so the beginning of 
anything. 



Revival of Art in Italy 



597 



was printed from the same type, mistakes in the different 
copies might be entirely ehminated. Furthermore, the inven- 
tion of printing destroyed the monopoly of learning possessed 
by the universities and people of wealth. Books were now the 
possession of the many, not the luxury of the few. Anyone 
who could read had opened to him the gateway of knowledge; 
he became a citizen, henceforth, of the republic of letters. 
Printing, which made possible popular education, public libra- 
ries, and ultimately cheap newspapers, ranks with gunpowder ^ 
as an emancipating force. 

212. Revival of Art in Italy 

Gothic architecture, with its pointed arches, flying buttresses, 

and traceried windows, never struck deep roots in Italy. 

The architects of the Renaissance went back to . , . 

Architecture 

Greek temples and Roman domed buildings for 
their models, just as the humanists went back to Greek and 
Latin literature. Long rows of Ionic or Corinthian columns, 
spanned by round arches, became again the prevailing archi- 
tectural style. Perhaps the most important accomplishment 
of Renaissance builders was the adoption of the dome, instead 
of the vault, for the roofs of churches. The majestic cupola of 
St. Peter's at Rome,^ which is modeled after the Pantheon,^ 
has become the parent of many domed structures in the Old 
and New World.* Architects, however, did not limit them- 
selves to churches. The magnificent palaces of Florence, as 
well as some of those in Venice, are among the monuments of 
the Renaissance era. Henceforth architecture became more 
and more a secular art. 

The development of architecture naturally stimulated the 

other arts. Italian sculptors besjan to copy the „ , 

1 1 • i Sculpture 

ancient bas-reliefs and statues preserved m Rome 

and other cities. At this time glazed terra cotta came to be 

1 See page 574. ^ gee the plate facing page 591. 

3 See the illustration, page 202. 

« For instance, the Invalides in Paris, St. Paul's in London, and the Capitol at 
Washington. 



598 



The Renaissance 



used by sculptors. Another Renaissance art was the casting 
of bronze doors, with panels which represented scenes from 
the Bible. The beautiful doors of the baptistery of Florence 
were described as ''worthy of being placed at the entrance of 
Paradise." 

The greatest of Renaissance sculptors was Michelangelo. 
Though a Florentine by birth, he lived in Rome and made 
Michelangelo, ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ Center of Italian art. A colossal statue 
1475-1564 of David, who looks like a Greek athlete, and an- 
other of Moses, seated and holding the table of the 
law, are among his best-known works. Michelangelo also won 
fame in architecture and painting. The dome of St. Peter's 
was finished after his designs. Having been commissioned by 
one of the popes to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ^ 
in the Vatican, he painted a series of scenes which presented 
the Biblical story from the Creation to the Flood. These 
frescoes are unequaled for sublimity and power. On the end 
wall of the same chapel Michelangelo produced his fresco of the 
"Last Judgment," one of the most famous paintings in the 
world. 

The early Italian painters contented themselves, at first, 
with imitating Byzantine mosaics and enamels. ^ Their work 
Rise of exhibited little knowledge of human anatomy: 

Italian faces might be lifelike, but bodies were too slender 

painting ^£ proportion. The figures of men and 

women were posed in stiff and conventional attitudes. The 
perspective also was false: objects which the painter wished to 
represent in the background were as near as those which he 
wished to represent in the foreground. In the fourteenth cen- 
tury, however, Italian painting abandoned the Byzantine style; 
achieved beauty of form, design, and color to an extent hitherto 
unknown; and became at length the supreme art of the 
Renaissance. 

Itahan painting began in the service of the Church and 
always remained religious in character. Artists usually chose 

1 In this chapel the election of a new pope takes place. 

2 See page 336. 



Revival of Art in Italy 



599 



subjects from the Bible or the hves of the saints. They did 
not trouble themselves to secure correctness of characteris- 
costume, but represented ancient Jews, Greeks, tics of Italian 
and Romans in the garb of ItaHan gentlemen, p^^^s 
Many of their pictures were frescoes, that is, the colors were 
mixed with water and applied to the plaster walls of churches 
and palaces. After the process of mixing oils with the colors 
was discovered, pictures on wood or canvas (easel paintings) 
became common. Renaissance painters excelled in portraiture. 
They were less successful with landscapes. 

Among the "old masters" of Italian painting four, besides 
Michelangelo, stand out with special prominence. Leonardo 
da Vinci (1452-1519 a.d.) was architect, sculptor, The "old 
musician, and engineer, as well as painter. His masters" 
finest work, the "Last Supper," a fresco painting at Milan, is 
much damaged, but fortunately good copies of it exist. Paris 
has the best of his easel pictures — the "Monna Lisa." Leo- 
nardo spent four years on it and then declared that he could 
not finish it to his satisfaction. Leonardo's contemporary, 
Raphael (1483-15 20 a.d.), died before he was forty, but not 
before he had produced the "Sistine Madonna," now at Dres- 
den, the "Transfiguration," in the Vatican Gallery at Rome, 
and many other famous compositions. In Raphael Italian 
painting reached its zenith. All his works are masterpieces. 
Another artist, the Venetian Titian (i477?-i576 a.d.), painted 
portraits unsurpassed for glowing color. His "Assumption 
of the Virgin" ranks among the greatest pictures in the world. 
Lastly must be noted the exquisite paintings of Correggio 
(1494-1534 A.D.), among them the "Holy Night" and the 
"Marriage of St. Catherine." 

Another modern art, that of music, arose in Italy during the 
Renaissance. In the sixteenth century the three-stringed 

rebeck received a fourth string and became the „ . 

° Music 
violm, the most expressive of all musical instru- 
ments. A forerunner of the pianoforte also appeared in the 
harpsichord. A papal organist and choir-master, Palestrina 
(1526-1594 A.D.), was the first of the great composers. He gave 



6oo 



The Renaissance 



music its fitting place in worship by composing melodious 
hymns and masses still sung in Roman Catholic churches. 
The oratorio, a religious drama set to music but without action, 
scenery, or costume, had its beginning at this time. The opera, 
however, was little developed until the eighteenth century. 

213. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy 

About the middle of the fifteenth century fire from the Italian 
altar was carried across the Alps, and a revival of learning 
Spread of began in northern lands. Italy had led the way 
humanism in by recovering the long-buried treasures of the 
Europe classics and by providing means for their study. 

Scholars in Germany, France, and England, who now had the 
aid of the printing press, continued the intellectual movement 
and gave it widespread currency. 

The foremost humanist of the age was Desiderius Erasmus. 

Though a native of Rotterdam in Holland, he hved for a time 

^ . , . in Germany, France, England, and Italy, and died 

Desiderius ^ , . ' . ' i -n- ^ 

Erasmus, at Basel m Switzerland. His travels and exten- 

1466(?)-1536 gjyg correspondence brought him in contact with 
most of the leading scholars of the day. Eras- 
mus wrote in Latin many works which were read and enjoyed 
by educated men. He might be called the first really popular 
author in Europe. Like Petrarch, he did much to encourage 
the humanistic movement by his precepts and his example. 
''When I have money," said this devotee of the classics, 'T 
will first buy Greek books and then clothes." 

Erasmus performed his most important service as a Biblical 
critic. In 1516 a.d. he published the New Testament in the 
Greek Testa- C)riginal Greek, with a Latin translation and a dedi- 
mentof cation to the pope. Up to this time the only 

Erasmus accessible edition of the New Testament was the 
old Latin version known as the Vulgate, which St. Jerome had 
made near the close of the fourth century. By preparing a new 
and more accurate translation, Erasmus revealed the fact that 
the Vulgate contained many errors. By printing the Greek 
text, together with notes which helped to make the meaning 




ITALIAN PAINTINGS OF THE RENAISSANCE 



The Night Watch — Rembrandt 




Descent from the Cross — Rubens The Immaculate Conception — Murillo 
FLEMISH. DUTCH, AND SPANISH PAINTINGS OF THE RENAISSANCE 



Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy 60 1 



and the 
Reformation 




clear, Erasmus enabled scholars to discover for themselves 
just what the New Testament writers had actually said.^ 

Erasmus as a student of the New Testament carried humanism 
over into the rehgious field. His 
friends and associates, espe- 
cially in Germany, Humanism 
continued his 
work. "We are all 
learning Greek now," said 
Luther, "in order to under- 
stand the Bible." Humanism, 
by becoming the handmaid of 
rehgion, thus passed insensibly 
into the Reformation. 

ItaHan architects found a 
cordial reception in France, 
Spain, the Netherlands, and 
other countries, The artistic 
where they intro- 
duced Renaissance 
styles of building and ornamen- 
tation. The celebrated palace 
of the Louvre in Paris, which is used to-day as an art gallery 
and museum, dates from the sixteenth century. At this time 
the French nobles began to replace their somber feudal dwellings 
by elegant country houses. Renaissance sculpture also spread 
beyond Italy throughout Europe. Painters in northern coun- 
tries at first followed Itahan models, but afterwards produced 
masterpieces of their own.^ 

The so-called Complutensian Polyglott, issued at Alcala in Spain by Cardi- 
nal Jimenes, did even more for the advance of Biblical scholarship. This 
was the first printed text of the Greek New Testament, but it was not actually 
published till 1522 a.d., six years after the appearance of the edition by 
Erasmus. 

2 A list of the great European painters would include at least the following names: 
Durer (1471-1582 a.d.) and Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543 a.d.) in Ger- 
many; Rubens (1577-1640 a.d.) and Van Dyck (1599-1641 a.d.) in Flanders; 
Rembrandt (i6o6-i66g a.d.) in Holland; Claude Lorraine (1600-1682 a.d.) in 
France; and Velasquez (1599-1660 a.d.) and Murillo (1617-1682 a.d.) in Spain. 



revival in 
Europe 



Desiderius Erasmus 

Louvre, Paris 

A portrait by the German artist, Hans 
Holbein the Younger (1497-1543 a.d.). 
Probably an excellent likeness of Erasmus. 



6o2 



The Renaissance 



214. The Renaissance in Literature 

The renewed interest in classical studies for a le retarded 
the development of national languages and literatures in Europe. 
Humanism humanists only Latin and Greek seemed 

and the worthy of notice. Petrarch, for instance, com- 
vernacular posed in Italian beautiful sonnets which are still 
much admired, but he himself expected to gain literary immor- 
tality through his Latin works. Another Italian humanist 
went so far as to call Dante ''a poet for bakers and cobblers,'* 
and the Divine Comedy was indeed translated into Latin a few 
years after the author's death. 

But a return to the vernacular was bound to come. The 
common people understood little Latin, and Greek not at all. 
jjjg Yet they had learned to read and they now had 

vernacular the printing press. Before long many books com- 
revival posed in Italian, Spanish, French, English, and 

other national languages made their appearance. This revival 
of the vernacular meant that henceforth European literature 
would be more creative and original than was possible when 
writers merely imitated or translated the classics. The mod- 
els provided by Greece and Rome still continued, however, to 
furnish inspiration to men of letters. 

The Florentine historian and diplomat, Machiavelli, by his 
book. The Prince, did much to found the modern science of 
MachiaveUi pohtics. Machiavelli, as a patriotic Italian, felt 
1469-1527 infinite distress at the divided condition of Italy, 
where numerous petty states were constantly at 
war. In The Prince he tried to show how a strong, despotic 
ruler might set up a national state in the peninsula. He thought 
that such a ruler ought not to be bound by the ordinary rules of 
morality. He must often act ''against faith, against charity, 
against humanity, and against religion." The end would justify 
the means. Success was everything; morality, nothing. This 
dangerous doctrine has received the name of ''Machiavellism"; 
it is not yet dead in European statecraft. 

Spain during the sixteenth century gave to the world in 



The Renaissance in Literature 



603 




Cervantes 



Cervantes the only Spanish writer who has achieved a great 
reputation outside his own country. Cervantes's cervantes 
masterpiece, Don Quixote, seems to have been 1547-1616 
intended as a burlesque upon the romances of 
chivalry once so popular in 
Europe. The hero, Don 
Quixote, attended by his 
shrewd and faithful squire, 
Sancho Panza, rides forth to 
perform deeds of knight- 
errantry, but meets, instead, 
the most absurd adventures. 
The work is a vivid picture 
of Spanish life. Nobles, 
priests, monks, traders, farm- 
ers, innkeepers, muleteers, 
barbers, beggars — all these 
pass before our eyes as in 
a panorama. Don Quixote 

immediately became popular, and it is even more read to-day 
than it was three centuries ago. 

The Flemish writer, Froissart, deserves notice as a historian 
and as one of the founders of French prose. His Chronicles 
present an account of the fourteenth century, pj-oigsart 
when the age of feudalism was fast drawing to an 1337 (?)-i4lo 
end. He admired chivalry and painted it in glow- 
ing colors. He liked to describe tournaments, battles, sieges, and 
feats of arms. Klings and nobles, knights and squires, are the 
actors on his stage. Froissart traveled in many countries and got 
much of his information at first hand from those who had made 
history. Out of what he learned he composed a picturesque 
and romantic story, which still captivates the imagination. 

A very different sort of writer was the Frenchman, Montaigne. 
He lives to-day as the author of one hundred and Montaigne 
seven essays, very delightful in style and full of wit 
and wisdom. Montaigne really invented the essay, 
a form of literature in which he has had many imitators. 



1533-1592 
A.D. 



6o4 



The Renaissance 



1340 (?) 
1400 A.D 



Geoffrey Chaucer, who has been called the " morning star" of 
the English Renaissance, was a story-teller in verse. His 
Chaucer, Canterbury Tales are supposed to be told by a 
company of pilgrims, as they journey from London 
to the shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury.^ 
Chaucer describes freshly and with unfailing good spirits the 
life of the middle and upper classes. He does not reveal, any 
more than his conterhporary Froissart, the labor and sorrows 

of the down-trodden peasantry. 
But Chaucer was a true poet, 
and his name stands high in 
England's long roll of men of 
letters. 

This survey of the national 
authors of the Renaissance may 
fitly close with William Shake- 
Shakespeare, speare, whose genius 
1564-1616 transcended national 
boundaries and 
made him a citizen of all the 
world. His life is known to us 
only in barest outline. Born at 
Stratford-on-Avon, of humble 
parentage, he attended the vil- 
lage grammar school, where he 
learned ^' small Latin and less 
Greek," went to London as a 
youth, and became an actor and 
a playwright. He prospered, 
made money both from his act- 
ing and the sale of his plays, and at the age of forty-four 
retired to Stratford for the rest of his hfe. Here he died eight 
years later, and here his grave may still be seen in the village 
church.2 During his residence in London he wrote, in whole 




William Shakespeare 

From the copper-plate engraved by 
Martin Droeshout as frontispiece to the 
First Folio edition of Shakespeare's works 
in 1623 A.D. In this engraving the head 
is far too large for the body and the dress 
is out of perspective. The only other 
authentic likeness of Shakespeare is the 
bust over his grave in Holy Trinity 
Church. Stratford-on-Avon. 



1 See the illustration, page 442. 

2 The three-hundredth anniversary of Shakespeare's death was appropriately 
observed in 1916 a.d, throughout the world. 



The Renaissance in Literature 



605 



or in part, thirty-six or thirty-seven dramas, both tragedies 
and comedies. They were not collected and published until 
several years after his death. Shakespeare's plays were read 
and praised by his contemporaries, but it has remained for 
modern men to see in him one who ranks with Homer, Vergil, 
Dante, and Goethe among the great poets of the world. 




Shakespeaee's Birthplace, Stratfoed-on-Avon 

The house in which Shakespeare was bom has been much altered in exterior appearance 
since the poet's day. The timber framework, the floors, most of the interior walls, and the 
cellars remain, however, substantially unchanged. The illustration shows the appearance of 
the house before the restoration made in 1857 a.d. 



Renaissance poets and prose writers revealed themselves in 
their books. In the same way the sculptors and painters of 
the Renaissance worked out their own ideas and personality in 
emotions in their masterpieces. This personal Renaissance 
note affords a sharp contrast to the anonymity of 
the Middle Ages. We do not know the authors of the Song 
of Roland, the Nibelungenlied, and Reynard the Fox, any more 
than we know the builders of the Gothic cathedrals. Medieval 
hterature subordinated the individual; that of the Renaissance 
expressed the sense of individuahty and man's interest in him- 
self. It was truly "humanistic." 



6o6 



The Renaissance 



215. The Renaissance in Education 

The universities of the Middle Ages emphasized scholastic 
philosophy, though in some institutions law and medicine also 
Humanism received much attention. Greek, of course, was 
and educa- not taught, the vernacular languages of Europe 
were not studied, and neither science nor history 
enjoyed the esteem of the learned. The Renaissance brought 
about a partial change in this curriculum. The classical lan- 
guages and literatures, after some opposition, gained an en- 
trance into university courses and displaced scholastic philosophy 
as the chief subject of instruction. From the universities the 
study of the ''humanities" descended to the lower schools, where 
they still hold a leading place. 

An Italian humanist, Vittorino da Feltre, was the pioneer of 
Renaissance education.- In his private school at Mantua, the 
Vittorino da "House of Delight," as it was called, Vittorino 
Feltre, 1378- aimed to develop at- the same time the body, 
1446 A.D. mind, and character of his pupils, so as to fit them 
to ''serve God in Church and State." Accordingly, he gave 
much attention to religious instruction and also set a high 
value on athletics. The sixty or seventy young men under his 
care were taught to hunt and fish, to run and jump, to wrestle 
and fence, to walk gracefully, and above all things to be temper- 
ate. For intellectual training he depended on the Latin classics 
as the best means of introducing students to the literature, 
art, and philosophy of ancient times. Vittorino's name is not 
widely known to-day; he left no writings, preferring, as he 
said, to live in the Hves of his pupils; but there is scarcely a 
modern teacher who does not consciously or unconsciously 
follow his methods. More than anyone else, he is responsible 
for the educational system which has prevailed in Europe almost 
to the present day. 

It cannot be said that the influence of humanism on educa- 
classical tion was wholly good. Henceforth the Greek and 
education" Latin languages and literatures became the chief 
instruments of culture. Educators neglected the great world of 



The Scientific Renaissance 



607 



nature and of human life which lay outside the writings of the 
ancients. This " bookishness " formed a real defect of Renais- 
sance systems of training. 

A Mora\dan bishop named Comenius, who gave his long life 
almost wholly to teaching, stands for a reaction against human- 
istic education. He proposed that the vernacular comenius, 

tongues, as well as the classics, should be made 1592-1671 

AD 

subjects of study. For this purpose he prepared 
a reading book, which was translated into a dozen European 
languages, and even into Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Come- 
nius also beheved that the curriculum should include the study 
of geography, world history, and government, and the practice 
of the manual arts. He was one of the first to advocate the 
teactdng of science. Perhaps his most notable idea was that of 
a national system of education, reaching from primary grades 
to the university. "Not only," he writes, "are the children of 
the rich and noble to be drawn to school, but aU ahke, rich and 
poor, boys and girls, in great towns and smaU, down to the 
country collages." The influence of this Slavic teacher is more 
and more felt in modern systems of education. 



216. The Scientific Renaissance 

The Middle Ages were not by any means ignorant of science,^ 
hut its study naturaUy received a great impetus when the 
Renaissance brought before educated men all that Humanism 
the Greeks and Romans had done in mathematics, and 
physics, astronomy, medicine, and other subjects. 
The invention of printing also fostered the scientific revival by 
making it easy to spread knowledge abroad in every land. The 
pioneers of Renaissance science were Itahans, but students in 
France, England, Germany, and other countries soon took up 
the work of enhghtenment. 

The names of some Renaissance scientists stand as land- 
marks in the history of thought. The first place must be given 
to Copernicus, the founder of modern astronomy. He was a 



1 See page 572. 



6o8 



The Renaissance 



Pole, but lived many years in Italy. Patient study and 
Copernicus, Calculation led him to the conclusion that the 
1473-1543 earth turns upon its own axis, and, together with 
the planets, revolves around the sun. The book 
in which he announced this conclusion did not appear until 
the very end of his life. A copy of it reached him on his 
deathbed. 

Medieval astronomers had generally accepted the Ptolemaic 
system.^ Some students before Copernicus had indeed sug- 
The Coper- gested that the earth and planets might rotate 
nican theory about a central sun, but he first gave reasons for 
such a belief. The new theory met much opposition, not only 
in the universities, which clung to the time-honored Ptolemaic 
system, but also among theologians, who thought that it con- 
tradicted many statements in the Bible. Moreover, people 
could not easily reconcile themselves to the idea that the earth, 
instead of being the center of the universe, is only one member 
of the solar system, that it is, in fact, only a mere speck of 
cosmic dust. 

An Italian scientist, Galileo, made one of the first telescopes 
— it was about as powerful as an opera glass — and turned it on 
Galileo heavenly bodies with wonderful results. He 

1564-1642 found the sun moving unmistakeably on its axis, 
Venus showing phases according to her position in 
relation to the sun, Jupiter accompanied by revolving moons, 
or satellites, and the Milky Way composed of a multitude of 
separate stars. Galileo rightly believed that these discoveries 
confirmed the theory of Copernicus. 

Another man of genius, the German Kepler, worked out the 
mathematical laws which govern the movements of the planets. 
Kepler, 1571- He made it clear that the planets revolve around 
1630 A.D. sun in elliptical instead of circular orbits. 

Kepler's investigations afterwards led to the discovery of the 
principle of gravitation. 

Two other scientists did epochal work in a field far removed 
from astronomy. Vesalius, a Fleming, who studied in ItaHan 

1 See page 133. 



The Economic Renaissance 609 

medical schools, gave to the world the first careful description 
of the human body based on actual dissection, ygs^iius 
He was thus the founder of human anatomy. 1514-1564 
Har\-ey, an Enghshman, after observing h\ing ani- H^rej^^ 
mals, announced the discover^' of the circulation of 1578-1657 
the blood. He thereby founded himian physiolog}\ 

CopemicuSj Galileo, Kepler, Vesahus, Harv^ey, and their 
fellow workers built up the scientific method. In the ^Middle 
Ages students had mostly been satisfied to accept jj^^ 
what Aristotle and other philosophers had said, scientific 
without tr}Tng to prove their statements.^ Kepler, 
for instance, was the first to disprove the Aristotehan idea that, 
as all perfect motion is circular, therefore the heavenly bodies 
must move in circular orbits. Similarly, the world had to wait 
many centuries before HarAxy showed Aristotle's error in sup- 
posing that the blood arose in the hver, went thence to the 
heart, and by the veins was conducted over the body. The 
new scientific method rested on observ'ation and experiment. 
Students learned at length to take nothing for granted, to set 
aside all authority, and to go straight to nature for their facts. 
As Lord Bacon,- one of Shakespeare's contemporaries and a 
severe critic of the old scholasticism, declared, "xAU depends on 
keeping the eye steadily fixed upon the facts of nature, and so 
leceiATQg their images simply as they are, for God forbid that 
we should give out a dream of our own imagination for a pattern 
of the world.'' ^lodem science, to which T\^e owe so much, is 
a product of the Renaissance. 

217. The Economic Renaissance 

Thus far the Renaissance has been studied as an intellectual 
and artistic movement, which did much to hberate the human 
mind and brought the Middle Ages to an end in An economic 
literature, in art, and in science. It is necessary-, change 
however, to consider the Renaissance era from another point of 



1 See page 571. 

* Xot to be confused with his countrjTnan, Roger Bacon, who lived in the thir- 
teenth centup.-. See page 573. 



6io 



The Renaissance 



view. During this time an economic change of vast significance 
was taking place in rural life all over western Europe. We 
refer to the decline and ultimate extinction of medieval serfdom. 

Serfdom imposed a burden only less heavy than the slavery 
which it had displaced. The serf, as has been shown/ might 
Decline of not leave the manor in which he was born, he 
serfdom niight not sell his holdings of land, and, finally, 
he had to give up a large part of his time to work without pay 
for the lord of the manor. This system of forced labor was at 
once unprofitable to the lord and irksome to his serfs. After 
the revival of trade and industry in the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries had brought more money into circulation,^ the lord 
discovered how much better it was to hire men to work for 
him, as he needed them, instead of depending on serfs who 
shirked their tasks as far as possible. The latter, in turn, 
were glad to pay the lord a fixed sum for the use of land, since 
now they could devote themselves entirely to its cultivation. 
Both parties gained by an arrangement which converted the 
manorial lord into a landlord and the serf into a free tenant- 
farmer paying rent. 

The emancipation of the peasantry was hastened, strangely 
enough, as the result of perhaps the most terrible calamity that 
The "Black has ever afflicted mankind. About the middle 
Death" fourteenth century a pestilence of Asiatic 

origin, now known to have been the bubonic plague, reached 
the West.^ The ''Black Death," so called because among its 
symptoms were dark patches all over the body, moved steadily 
across Europe. The way for its ravages had been prepared by 
the unhealthful conditions of ventilation and drainage in towns 
.and cities. After attacking Greece, Sicily, Italy, Spain, 
Prance, and Germany, the plague entered England in 1349 a.d. 
and within less than two years swept away probably half the 
population of that country. The mortality elsewhere was 
■enormous, one estimate setting it as high as twenty-five millions 
for all Europe. 

1 See page 436. 2 See page 541. 

3 A similar plague devastated the Roman world during the reign of Justinian. 



The Economic Renaissance 



6ii 



The pestilence in England, as in other countries, caused a 

great scarcity of labor. For want of hands to bring in the 

harvest, crops rotted on the ground, while sheep Ejects of the 

and cattle, with no one to care for them, strayed " Black 

Death " 

through the deserted fields. The free peasants 
•who survived demanded and received higher wages. Even 
the serfs, whose labor was now more valued, found themselves 
in a better position. The lord of a manor, in order to keep 
his laborers, w^ould often allow them to substitute money 
payments for personal services. When the serfs got no con- 
cessions, they frequently took to flight and hired themselves to 
the highest bidder. 

The governing classes of England, who at this time were 
mainly landowners, believed that the workers were taking an 
unfair advantage of the situation. So in 13 51 -p^^^ statute 
A.D. Parhament passed a law fixing the maximum of Laborers, 
w^age in different occupations and punishing with 
imprisonment those w^ho refused to accept work when it was 
offered to them. The fact that Parhament had to reenact this 
law thirteen times within the next century shows that it did not 
succeed in preventing a general rise of wages. It only exasper- 
ated the working classes. 

A few years after the first Statute of Laborers the restlessness 

and discontent among the masses led to a serious outbreak. It 

w^as one of the few attempts at violent revolution 

which the Enghsh working people have made. Peasants' 

One of the inspirers of the rebellion was a wander- Rebellion, 
^ 1381 A.D. 

ing priest named John Ball. He went about 

preaching that all goods should be held in common and the 

distinction between lords and serfs wiped away. ''When 

Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?'* 

asked John Ball. Uprisings occurred in nearly every part 

of England, but the one in Kent had most importance. 

The rioters marched on London and presented their demands 

to the youthful king, Richard 11. He promised to abohsh 

serfdom and to give- them a free pardon. As soon, however, 

as Richard had gathered an army, he put down the revolt 



6l2 



The Renaissance 



Jacquerie, 
1358 A.D. 



by force and hanged John Ball and about a hundred of his 
followers. 

The rebellion in England may be compared with the far 
more terrible Jacquerie ^ in France, a few years earlier. The 

French peasants, who suf- 
fered from feudal oppres- 

The sio^ the 

effects of the 
Hundred 
Years' War, raged 
through the land, burning 
the castles and murdering 
their feudal lords. The 
movement had scarcely 
any reasonable purpose; 
it was an outburst of 
blind passion. The nobles 
avenged themselves by 
slaughtering the peasants 
in great numbers. 

Though these first great 
struggles of labor against 
Extinction capital were 
of serfdom failures, the 
emancipation of the peas- 
antry went steadily on 
throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. By 1500 
A.D. serfdom had virtually disappeared in Italy, in most parts 
of France, and in England. Some less-favored countries re- 
tained serfdom much longer. Prussian, Austrian, and Russian 
serfs did not receive their freedom until the nineteenth century. 

The extinction of serfdom was, of course, a forward step in 
human freedom, but the lot of the English and Continental 
Condition of peasantry long remained wretched. The poem 
the peasantry pi^rs Plowman^ written in the time of Chaucer, 
shows the misery of the age and reveals a very different picture 

1 From Jacques, a common French name for a peasant. 




Richard II 

After an engraving based on the original in West- 
minster Abbey. Probably the oldest authentic por- 
trait in England. 



The Economic Renaissance 



613 



than that of the gay, hoHday-making, merry England seen in 
the Canterbury Tales. One hundred and fifty years later, the 
English humanist, Sir Thomas More, a friend of Erasmus, 
published his Utopia as a protest against social abuses. Utopia, 
or "Nowhere," is an imaginary country whose inhabitants 
choose their own rulers, hold all property in common, and work 
only nine hours a day. In Utopia a pubHc system of education 
prevails, cruel punishments are unknown, and every one enjoys 
complete freedom to worship God. This remarkable book, 
though it pictures an ideal commonwealth, really anticipates 
many social reforms of the present time. 

Studies 

I. Prepare a chronological chart showing the leading men of letters, artists, 
scientists, and educators mentioned in this chapter. 2. For what were the follow- 
ing persons noted: Chrysoloras; Vittorino da Feltre; Gutenberg; Boccaccio; 
MachiaveUi; Harvey; and Galileo? 3. How did the words " machiaveUism " 
and "Utopian" get their present meanings? 4. Distinguish and define the three 
terms, "Renaissance," "Revival of Learning," and "Humanism." 5. "Next to 
the discovery of the New World, the recovery of the ancient world is the second 
landmark that divides us from the Middle Ages and marks the transition to modern 
life." Comment on this statement. 6. Why did the Renaissance begin as "an 
Italian event"? 7. " City-states have always proved favorable to culture." Illus- 
trate this remark. 8. Why was the revival of Greek more important in the history 
of civilization than the revival of Latin? g. Show that printing was an "emanci- 
pating force." 10. With what paintings by the "old masters" are you familiar? 
II. How does the opera differ from the oratorio? 12. Why has Froissart been 
styled the "French Herodotus"? 13. How many of Shakespeare's plays can you 
name? How many have you read? 14. Can you mention any of Shakespeare's 
plays which are founded on Italian stories or whose scenes are laid in Italy? 

15. Why did the classical scholar come to be regarded as the only educated man? 

16. In what respects is the American system of education a realization of the ideals 
of Comenius? 17. Did the medieval interest in astrology retard or further astro- 
nomical research? 18. How did the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler confirm the 
Copernican theory? 19. What is meant by the "emancipation of the peasantry"? 



CHAPTER XXVI 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION ^ 

218. Medieval Geography 

There was also a geographical Renaissance. The revival of 
the exploring spirit led to the discovery of ocean routes to the 
Far East and the Americas. In consequence, 
geographical commerce was vastly stimulated, and two con- 
Renaissance tinents, hitherto unknown, were opened up to 
civilization. The geographical Renaissance, which gave man 
a New World, thus cooperated with the other movements of 
the age in bringing about the transition from medieval to 
modern times. 

The Greeks and Romans had become familiar with a large 
part of Europe and Asia, but much of their learning was either 
Medieval forgotten or perverted during the early Middle 
ignorance of Ages. Even the wonderful discoveries of the 
geography Northmen in the North Atlantic gradually faded 
from memory. The Arabs, whose conquests and commerce 
extended over so much of the Orient, far surpassed the Chris- 
tian peoples of Europe in knowledge of the world. 

The alliance of medieval geography with theology led to 
curious results. Map makers, relying on a passage in the Old 
Geographi- Testament,^ usually placed Jerusalem in the cen- 
cal myths j-^j. of the world. A Scriptural reference to the 
''four corners of the earth" ^ was sometimes thought to imply 
the existence of a rectangular world. From classical sources 
came stories of monstrous men, one-eyed, headless, or dog- 
headed, who were supposed to inhabit remote regions. Equally 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxi, "The Travels 
of Marco Polo"; chapter xxii, "The Aborigines of the New World," 

2 Ezekiel, v, 5. ^ Isaiah, x, 12. 

614 



Medieval Geography 




monstrous animals, such as the unicorn and dragon/ kept 
them company. Sailors' "yarns" must have been responsible 
for the behef that the ocean boiled at the equator and that in 
the Atlantic — the "Sea of Darkness" — lurked. serpents huge 
enough to sink ships. To the real danger of travel by land 
and water people thus added imaginary terrors. 

Many maps prepared in the Middle Ages sum up the pre- 
vailing knowledge, or 
rather igno- The Cosmas 
ranee, of the °^^p 
world. One of the earliest 
specimens that has come 
down to us was made in 
the sLxth century, by 
Cosmas, an Alexandrian 
monk. It exhibits the 
earth as a rectangle sur- 
rounded by an ocean with 
four deep gulfs. Beyond 
this ocean lies another 
world, the seat of Paradise and the place "where men dwelt 
before the Flood." The rivers which flow from the lakes of 
Paradise are also shown. Figures holding trumpets represent 
the four winds. 

A map made about seven hundred years later, and now pre- 
served in Hereford Cathedral, shows the earth as a circular 
disk with the ocean surrounding it. In the ex- The Hereford 
treme east — that is, at the top — lies Paradise, °^^P 
Jerusalem occupies the center, and below it comes the Medi- 
terranean, liberally supplied with islands. The Black Sea ap- 
pears as a narrow body of water, and even the British Isles 
are strangely distorted to fit the circle. Such a map could 
have been of little use to travelers; it simply satisfied a natural 
curiosity about the wonders of the world. 

The crusades, more than anything else, first extended geo- 
graphical knowledge. As a religious movement they led to 

1 See pages 574-575- 



Geographical IvIonsters 

From an early edition of Sir John Mandeville's 
Travels. Shakespeare {Othello, I, iii, 144—145) re- 
fers to 

" The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads 
Do grow beneath their shoulders." 



6i6 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



pilgrimages and missions in Oriental lands. With the pilgrims 
opening up and missionaries went hard-headed traders, who 
of Asia brought back to Europe the weahh of the East. 

The result, by 1300 a.d., was to open up countries beyond 
the Euphrates which had remained sealed to Europe for cen- 
turies. This discovery of the interior of Asia had only less 
importance than that of the New World two centuries later. 

What specially drew explorers eastward was the behef that 
somewhere in the center of Asia existed a great Christian 
Legend of kingdom which, if aUied to European Christen- 
Prester John Jom, might attack the Moslems from the rear. 
According to one form of the story the kingdom consisted of 
the Ten Tribes of Israel,^ who had been converted to Chris- 
tianity by Nestorian missionaries.^ Over them reigned a 
priest-king named Prester (or Presbyter) John. The popes 
made several attempts to communicate with this mythical 
ruler. In the thirteenth century, however, Franciscan friars 
did penetrate to the heart of Asia. They returned to Europe 
with marvelous tales of the wealth and splendor of the East 
under the Mongol emperors. 

The most famous of all medieval travelers were Nicolo and 
Maffeo Polo, and Nicolo's son, Marco. These Venetian mer- 
chants set out for Asia in 1271 a.d., and after 

The Polos in ^ . 11/ 

the East, an adventurous journey reached the court of 

127^-1295 Kublai Khan at Peking.^ The Mongol ruler, who 
seems to have been anxious to introduce Chris- 
tianity and European culture among his people, received them 
in a friendly manner, and they amassed much wealth by trade. 
Marco entered the khan's service and went on several expedi- 
tions to distant parts of the Mongol realm. Many years passed 
before Kublai would allow his useful guests to return to Europe. 
They sailed at length from Zaitun, a Chinese seaport, skirted 
the coast of southeastern Asia and India, and then made their 
way overland to the Mediterranean. When the travelers 
reached Venice after an absence of twenty-four years, their 
relatives were slow to recognize in them the long-lost Polos. 

1 See page 35. 2 See page 347. ^ See page 488. 



Medieval Geography 6 



The Earth beyond the Ocean where men dwelt before the Flood 




The World according to Cosmas Indicoeleustes, 535 A..D. 




Geographical Ejstowledge during the Middle Ages 



6i8 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



The story of the Polos, as written down at Marco's dictation^ 
became one of the most popular works of the Middle Ages. 
Marco In this book Europe read of far Cathay (China), 

Polo's book ^[^i^ wealth, its huge cities, and swarming 
population, of mysterious and secluded Tibet, of Burma, Siam, 
and Cochin-China, with their palaces and pagodas, of the East 
Indies, famed for spices, of Ceylon, abounding in pearls, and 
of India, little known since the days of Alexander the Great. 
Even Cipango (Japan) Marco described from hearsay as an 
island whose people were white, civilized, and so rich in gold 
that the royal palace was roofed and paved with that metal. 
The accounts of these countries naturally made Europeans more 
eager than ever to reach the East. 

219. Aids to Exploration 

The new knowledge gained by European peoples about the 
land routes of Asia was accompanied by much progress in the 
The com- art of ocean navigation. First in importance came 
P^^^ the compass to guide explorers across the waters 

of the world. The Chinese appear to have discovered that 
a needle, when rubbed with a lodestone, has the mysterious 
power of pointing to the north. The Arabs may have intro- 
duced this rude form of the compass among Mediterranean 
sailors. The instrument, improved by being balanced on a. 
pivot so that it would not be affected by choppy seas, seems to 
have been generally used by Europeans as early as the thir- 
teenth century. It greatly aided sailors by enabling them tO' 
find their bearings in murky weather and on starless nights. 
The compass, though useful, was not indispensable; without 
its help the Northmen had made their distant expeditions in 
the Atlantic. 

The astrolabe, which the Greeks had invented and used for 
astronomical purposes, also came into Europe through the 
Nautical in- Arabs. It was employed to calculate latitudes by 
struments observation of the height of the sun above the 
horizon. Other instruments that found a place on shipboard 
were the hour-glass, minute-glass, and sun-dial. A rude form 



Aids to Exploration 



619 




of the log was used as a means of estimating the speed of a 
vessel, and so of finding roughly the longitude. 

During the last centuries of the Middle Ages the charting 
of coasts became a science. A sailor might rely on the "handy 
maps" iportolani) otherim- 

which outlined with provements 

1 , in navigation 

some approach to ac- 
curacy the bays, islands, and head- 
lands of the Mediterranean and 
adjacent waters. Manuals were 
prepared telling the mariner about 
the tides, currents, and other fea- 
tures of the route he intended to 
follow. The increase in size of 
ships made navigation safer and 
permitted the storage of bulky car- 
goes. For long voyages the saiHng 
vessel replaced the medieval galley 
Towed by oars. As the result of 
aU these improvements navigators no longer found it necessary 
to keep close to the shore, but could push out dauntlessly into 
the open sea. 

Many motives prompted exploration. Scientific curiosity, 
bred of the Renaissance spirit of free inquiry, led men to set 
forth on voyages of discovery. The crusading Motives for 
spirit, which had not died out in Europe, exploration 
thrilled at the thought of spreading Christianity among heathen 
peoples. And in this age, as in all epochs of exploration, ad- 
venturers sought in distant lands opportunities to acquire 
wealth and fame and power. 

Commerce formed perhaps the most powerful motive for explo- 
ration. Eastern spices — cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nutmeg, and 
ginger — were used more freely in medieval times -pj^g 
than now, when people Hved on salt meat during commercial 
the winter and salt fish during Lent. Even wine, 



An Astrolabe 



motive 



ale, and medicines had a seasoning of spices. 

1 See page 611. 



When John Ball ^ 



620 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 

wished to contrast the easy life of the lords with the peasants* 
hard lot, he said, "They have wines, spices, and fine bread, 
while we have only rye and the refuse of the straw." ^ Besides 
spices, all kinds of precious stones, drugs, perfumes, gums, dyes, 
and fragrant woods came from the East, Since the time of 
the crusades these luxuries, after having been brought overland 
by water to Mediterranean ports, had been distributed by Ve- 
netian and Genoese merchants throughout Europe.^ But now 
in the fifteenth century two other European peoples — the 
Portuguese and Spaniards — appeared as competitors for this 
Oriental trade. Their efi^orts to break through the mo- 
nopoly enjoyed by the Italian cities led to the discovery of 
the sea routes to the Indies. The Portuguese were first in 
the field. 



220. To the Indies Eastward: Prince Henry and 
Da Gama 

In the history of the fifteenth century few names rank higher 

than that of Prince Henry, commonly called the Navigator, 

Prince because of his services to the cause of exploration. 

Henry the ^phe SOU of a Portuguese king, he devoted himself 
Navigator, , . , c ... 

I394r-1460 durmg more than forty years to organizing scien- 

tific discovery. Under his direction better maps 
were made, the astrolabe was improved, the compass was 
placed on vessels, and seamen were instructed in all the nautical 
learning of the time. The problem which Prince Henry studied 
and which Portuguese sailors finally solved was the possibility 
of a maritime route around Africa to the Indies. 

The expeditions sent out by Prince Henry began by redis- 
covering the Madeira and Azores Islands, first visited by 

_ , . Europeans in the fourteenth century. Then the 
Exploration ^ ^ i i i i i i 

of the Portuguese turned southward along the unchar- 

foasT^ tered African coast. In 1445 a.d. they got as 

far as Cape Verde, or "Green Cape," so called 

because of its luxuriant vegetation. The discovery was im- 



1 Froissart, Chronicles, ii, 73. 



2 See page 540. 



Prince Henry and Da Gama 621 



portant, for it disposed of the idea that the Sahara desert 
extended indefinitely to the south. Sierra Leone, which the 
Carthaginian Hanno ^ had probably visited, was reached in 
1462 A.D., two years after Prince Henry's death. Soon Portu- 
guese sailors found the great bend of the African coast formed 
by the gulf of Guinea. In 147 1 a.d. they crossed the equator, 
without the scorching that some 
had feared. In 1482 a.d. they 
were at the mouth of the Congo. 
Six years later Bartholomew Diaz 
rounded the southern extremity 
of Africa. The story goes that he 
named it the Cape of Storms, and 
that the king of Portugal, recog- 
nizing its importance as a stage 
on the route to the East, rechris- 
tened it the Cape of Good Hope. 

A daring mariner, Vasco da 
Gama, opened the sea-gates to 

the Indies. With ^ ^ 

Da Gama's 
four tmy ships he voyage, 
set sail from Lisbon 1497-1499 
m July, 1497 A.D., 
and after leaving the Cape Verde Vasco da Gama 

Islands made a wide sweep into F^o^^ ^ manuscript in the British Museum. 

the South Atlantic. Five months passed before Africa was 
seen again. Having doubled the Cape of Good Hope in safety, 
Da Gama skirted the eastern shores of Africa and at length 
secured the services of a Moslem pilot to guide him across 
the Indian Ocean. In May, 1498 a.d., he reached Calicut,^ 
an important commercial city on the southwest coast of 
India. When Da Gama returned to Lisbon, after an absence 
of over two years, he brought back a cargo which repaid 
sixty times the cost of the expedition. The Portuguese king 
received him with high honor and created him Admiral of the 
Indies. 

1 See page 49. ^ Not Calcutta. 




62 2 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



The story of Da Gama's memorable voyage was sung by 

the Portuguese poet, Camoens, in the Lusiads. It is the most 

successful of all modern epics. The popularity 
Camoens, ^ jr- 

1524-1580 of the Lusiads has done much to keep alive the 
the^Lusiads ^^^^e of nationality among the Portuguese, and 
even to-day it forms a bond of union between 
Portugal and her daughter-nation across the Atlantic — 
Brazil. 

The discovery of an ocean passage to the East came at the 
right moment. Just at this time the Ottoman Turks were 
Significance beginning to block up the old trade routes.^ 
of the mari- Their conquests in Asia Minor and southeastern 
time route Europe, during the fifteenth century, shut out 
the Italians from the northern route through the ^Egean and 
the Black Sea. After Syria and Egypt were conquered, early 
in the sixteenth century, the central and southern routes also 
passed under Turkish control. The Ottoman advance struck 
a mortal blow at the prosperity of the Italian cities, which had 
so long monopolized Oriental trade. But the misfortune of 
Venice and Genoa was the opportunity of Portugal. 

221. The Portuguese Colonial Empire 

After Da Gama's voyage the Portuguese made haste to 
appropriate the wealth of the Indies. Fleet after fleet was 
Portuguese ^^^^ establish trading stations upon the 

ascendancy coasts of Africa and Asia. The great viceroy, 
m the East Albuquerque, captured the city of Goa and made 
it the center of the Portuguese dominions in India. Goa still 
belongs to Portugal. Albuquerque also seized Malacca, at 
the end of the Malay Peninsula, and Ormuz, at the entrance 
to the Persian Gulf. The possession of these 'strategic points 
enabled the Portuguese to control the commerce of the Indian 
Ocean. They also established trading relations with China, 
through the port of Macao, and with Japan, which was 
accidentally discovered in 1542 a.d. By the middle of the 

1 See page 540. 



The Portuguese Colonial Empire 623 



sixteenth century they had acquired almost complete ascend- 
ancy throughout southern Asia and the adjacent islands.^ 

The Portuguese came to the East as the successors of the 
Arabs, who for centuries had carried on an extensive trade in 
the Indian Ocean. Having dispossessed the Arabs, Portuguese 
the Portuguese took care to shut out all European trade 
competitors. Only their own merchants were al- ™°°°P^^y 
lowed to bring goods from the Indies to Europe by the Cape 
route. For a time this poHcy made Portugal very prosperous. 
Lisbon, the capital, formed the chief depot for spices and other 
eastern commodities. The French, Enghsh, and Dutch came 
there to buy them and took the place of Itahan merchants 
in distributing them throughout Europe. 

But the triumph of Portugal was short-hved. This small 

country, with a population of not more than a million, lacked 

the strength to defend her claims to a monopoly ^ „ 

* ^ Collapse 

of the Oriental trade. During the seventeenth of the 

century the French and Enghsh broke the power 
of the Portuguese in India, while the Dutch drove 
them from Ceylon and the East Indies. Though the Portu- 
guese lost most of their possessions so soon, they deserve a 
tribute of admiration for the energy, enthusiasm, and real 
heroism with which they built up the first of modern colonial 
empires. 

The new world in the East, thus entered by the Portuguese 
and later by other European peoples, was really an old world — 
rich, populous, and civiUzed. It held out alluring Europe in 
possibilities, not only for trade, but also as a field ^^^^ 
for missionary enterprise. Da Gama and Albuquerque began 
a movement, which still continues, to "westernize" Asia by 
opening it up to European influence. It remains to be seen, 
however, whether India, China, and Japan will allow their 
ancient culture to be extinguished by that of Europe. 

1 The Portuguese colonial empire included Ormuz, the west coast of India, 
Ceylon, Malacca, and various possessions in the IMalay Archipelago (Siunatra, 
Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and New Guinea). The Portu- 
guese also had many trading posts on the African coast, besides Brazil, which 
one of their mariners discovered in 1500 a.d. See the map between pages 628-629. 



/ 



624 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



222. To the Indies Westward: Columbus and 
Magellan 

Six years before Vasco da Gama cast anchor in the harbor of 
Cahcut, another intrepid sailor, seeding the Indies by a west- 
rpjjg ern route, accidentally discovered America. It 

globular does not detract from the glory of Columbus to 
theory show that the way for his discovery had been 

long in preparation. In the first place, the theory that the 
earth was round had been familiar to the Greeks and Romans, 
and to some learned men even in the darkest period of the 
Middle Ages. By the opening of the thirteenth century it 
must have been commonly known, for Roger Bacon ^ refers 
to it, and Dante, in the Divine Comedy plans his Inferno on 
the supposition of a spherical world. The awakening of in- 
terest in Greek science, as a result of the Renaissance, naturally 
called renewed attention to the statements by ancient geog- 
raphers. Eratosthenes,^ for instance, had clearly recognized 
the possibility of reaching India by sailing westward on the 
same parallel of latitude. Especially after the revival of 
Ptolemy's^ works in the fifteenth century, scholars accepted 
the globular theory; and they even went so far as to calculate 
the ^circumference of the earth. 

In the second place, men had long believed that west of 
Europe, beyond the strait of Gibraltar, lay mysterious lands. 
Myth of This notion first appears in the writings of the 
Atlantis Greek philosopher, Plato,^ who repeats an old 
tradition concerning Atlantis. According to Plato, Atlantis 
had been an island continental in size, but more than nine 
thousand years before his time it had sunk beneath the sea. 
Medieval writers accepted this account as true and found 
support for it in traditions of other western islands, such as 
the Isles of the Blest, where Greek heroes went after death, 
and the Welsh Avalon, whither King Arthur,^ after his last 

1 See page 573. ^ See page 591. ^ See page 133. 

^ A Latin translation of Ptolemy's Geography, accompanied by maps, was printed 
for the first time probably in 1462 a. d. 

s See page 275. ^ See page 560. 



Columbus and Magellan 625 

battle, was borne to heal his wounds. A widespread legend 
of the Middle Ages also described the visit made by St. 
Brandan, an Irish monk, to the ''promised land of the Saints," 
an earthly paradise far out in the Atlantic. St. Brandan's 
Island was marked on early maps, and voyages in search of 
it were sometimes undertaken. 




Behaim's Globe 



The outlines of North America and South America do not appear on the original globe. 

The ideas of European geographers in the period just pre- 
ceding the discovery of America are represented on a map, 
or rather a globe, which dates from 1492 a.d. It Behaim's 
was made by a German navigator, Martin Behaim, slobe 
for his native city of Nuremberg, where it is still preserved. 
Behaim shows the mythical island of St. B randan, lying in 



626 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



mid-ocean, and beyond it Japan (Cipango) and the East Indies. 
It is clear that he greatly underestimated the distance westward 
between Europe and Asia. The error was natural enough, 
for Ptolemy had reckoned the earth's circumference to be about 
one-sixth less than it is, and Marco Polo had given an exagger- 

ated idea of the distance to 

which Asia extended on the 
east. When Columbus set out 
on his voyage, he firmly be- 
Heved that a journey of four 
thousand miles would bring 
him to Cipango. 

Christopher Columbus was a 
native of Genoa, w^here his 
Columbus. father followed 
1446 (?)- 1506 the humble trade 

A. D. r TT 

01 a weaver. He 
seems to have obtained some 
knowledge of astronomy and 
geography as a student in the 
university of Pavia, but at an 
early age he became a sailor. 
Columbus knew the Mediter- 
ranean by heart; he once went to the Guinea coast; and he may 
have visited Iceland. He settled at Lisbon as a map-maker and 
married a daughter of one of Prince Henry's sea-captains. As 
Columbus pored over his maps and charts and talked with sea- 
men about their voyages, the idea came to him that much of the 
world remained undiscovered and that the distant East could 
be reached by a shorter route than that which led around Africa. 

Columbus was a well-read man, and in Aristotle, Ptolemy, 
and other ancient authorities he found apparent confirmation 
Researches grand idea. Columbus also owned a printed 

of copy of Marco Polo's book, and from his comments, 

Columbus written on the margin, we know how interested 
he was in Polo's statements referring to Cathay and Cipango. 
Furthermore, Columbus brought together all the information 




Christopher Columbus 

Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid 
The oldest known portrait of Columbus. 



Columbus and Magellan 627 




Isabella 



he could get about the fabled islands of the Atlantic. If he 
ever went to Iceland, some vague traditions may have reached 
him there of Norse voyages to 
Greenland and Vinland. Such 
hints and rumors strengthened his 
purpose to sail toward the setting 
sun in quest of the Indies. 

AU. know the story. How Co- 
lumbus first laid his plans before 
the king of Portugal, ^^^^ ^^y^g^ 
only to meet with re- of Columbus, 
buffs; how he then ^^^^ 
went to Spain and after many dis- 
couragements found a patron in 
Queen Isabella; how with three 
small ships he set out from Palos, 
August 3, 1492 A.D.; how after leaving the Canaries he 
sailed week after week over an unknown sea; and how at last, 
on the early morning of October 12, he sighted in the moon- 

hght the ghttering coral strand of 
one of the Bahama Islands.^ It 
was the New World. 

Columbus made three other 
voyages to the New World, in the 
course of which he explored the 
Caribbean Sea, the subsequent 
mouth of the Orinoco voyages of 
River, and the eastern Columbus 
coast of Central America. He 
lived and died in the belief that 
he had actually reached the 
mainland of Asia and the realms 
of the Great Khan of Cathay. 
The name West Indies still re- 
this 




Ship of 1492 a.d. 
mains as a testimony to 



error. 



1 Named San Salvador by Columbus and usually identified with Watling- 
Island. 



628 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 

The New World was named for a Florentine navigator, 
Amerigo Vespucci.^ While in the Spanish service he made 
Naming of Several western voyages and printed an account 
America ]^^g discovery of the mainland of America in 

1497 A.D. Scholars now generally reject his statements, but 
they found acceptance at the time, and it was soon suggested 

Nunc veto & heg partes Cintlatius luBratx/ 8C 
alia quarta pars per AmmcS Vefputiumc Vt infc^ 
qucntibus audietut)inucnta effcquanon video cut 
Affle^ quis iurc vetet ab Americo inucntorc iagads inge 
lico J3^jviK)AmetigenquaGikmeria^ter^am/i3ucA^lC 
licam dicendamtcum SC Europa & Afia a mulien^ 
bus fuaibrdtalint nomma.Eius Gm SC gentis mo^ 
les exl>isbims.Ameridnau]gationibus quf ieqaS 
turliquideintelligLdatut. 

The Name "America" 

Facsimile of the passage in the Cosmographia Introductio (1507), by Martin 
Waldseemiiller, in which the name " America " is proposed for the New World. 

that the new continent should be called America, ''because 
Americus discovered it." The name applied at first only to 
South America. After it became certain that South America 
joined another continent to the north, the name spread over 
the whole New World. 

Shortly after the return of Columbus from his first voyage, 
Pope Alexander VI, in response to a request by Ferdinand and 
The demar- Isabella, issued a bull granting these sovereigns ex- 
cation line, elusive rights over the newly discovered lands. In 
1493 A.D. order that the Spanish possessions should be clearly 
marked off from the Portuguese, the pope laid down an imagi- 
nary line of demarcation in the Atlantic, three hundred miles 
-west of the Azores. All new discoveries west of the line were 
to belong to Spain; all those east of it, to Portugal.^ But this 

1 In Latin, Americus Vespucius. 

2 In 1494 A.D. the demarcation line was shifted about eight hvindred miles 
farther to the west. Six years later, when the Portuguese discovered Brazil, the 
country was found to lie within their sphere of influence. 



Columbus and Magellan 629 



Ferdinand 
Magellan, 
1480 (?) - 
1521 A.D. 

Ferdinand 




arrangement, which excluded France, England, and ot' -r 
European countries from the New World, could not be . Ag 
maintained. 

The demarcation line had a good deal to do in bri.iging 
about the first voyage around the globe. So far no one had 
yet realized the 
dream of Columbus 
to reach the lands 
of spice and silk by 
sailing westward 
Magellan, formerly one of Albu- 
querque's lieutenants but now 
in the service of Spain, beheved 
that the Spice Islands lay within 
the Spanish sphere of influence 
and that an all-Spanish route, 
leading to them through some 
strait at the southern end of 
South America, could be dis- 
covered. 

The Spanish ruler, Charles V, 
grandson of the Isabella who had supported Columbus, looked 
with favor upon Magellan's ideas and gave him 
a fleet of five vessels for the undertaking. After 
exploring the east coast of South America, Ma- 
gellan came at length to the strait which bears 
his name. Through this channel he sailed boldly 
and found himself upon an ocean which he called the Pacific, 
because of its peaceful aspect. Magellan's sailors now begged 
him to return, for food was getting scarce, but the navigator 
repHed that he would go on, "if he had to eat the leather off 
the rigging." He did go on, for ninety-eight days, until he 
reached the Ladrone Islands.^ By a curious chance, in all this 
long trip across the Pacific, Magellan came upon only two 
islands, both of them uninhabited. He then proceeded to 

1 Also known as the Mariannes. Magellan called them the Ladrones (Spanish 
ladron, a robber), because of the thievish habits of the natives. 



Ferdinand IMagellan 

From a portrait formerly ia the Ver- 
sailles Gallery, Paris. 



Circumnavi- 
gation of 
the globe, 
1519-1522 
A.D. 



630 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



the Philippines, where he was killed in a fight with the natives. 
His men, however, managed to reach the Spice Islands, the goal 
of the journey. Afterwards a single ship, the Victoria, csnried 
back to Spain the few sailors who had survived the hardships 
of a voyage lasting nearly three years. 

Magellan's voyage forms a landmark in the history of geog- 
raphy. It proved that America, at least on the south, had 
Meaning of no connection with Asia; it showed the enormous 
the circum- extent of the Pacific Ocean; and it led to the 
navigation discovery of many large islands in the East Indies. 
Henceforth men knew of a certainty that the earth was round 
and in the distance covered by Magellan they had a rough 
estimate of its size. The circumnavigation of the globe ranks 
with the discovery of America among the most significant 
events in history. In the company of great explorers Magellan 
stands beside Columbus. 

223. The Indians 

The first inhabitants of America probably came from the 
Old World. At a remote epoch a land-bridge connected north- 
Peopling of west Europe with Greenland, and Iceland still 
America remains a witness to its former existence. Over 
this bridge animals and men may have found their way into 
the New World. Another prehistoric route may have led from 
Asia. Only a narrow strait now separates Alaska from Siberia, 
and the Aleutian Islands form an almost complete series of 
stepping-stones across the most northerly part of the Pacific. 

The natives of America, whom Columbus called Indians, 
certainly resemble Asiatics in some physical features, such as 
jjjg the reddish-brown complexion, the hair, uni- 

American formly black and lank, the high cheek-bones, and 
aborigines ^j^^ ^^^^^ stature of many tribes. On the other 
hand, the large, aquihne nose, the straight eyes, never oblique, 
and the tall stature of some tribes are European traits. It 
seems safe to conclude that the American aborigines, whatever 
their origin, became thoroughly fused into a composite race 
during long centuries of isolation from the rest of mankind. 



The Indians 



631 




Because of their isolation the Indians had to work out 
by themselves many arts, inventions, and discoveries. They 
spoke over a thousand languages and dialects; Indian 
and not one has yet been traced outside of c^ltiire 
America. Their implements consisted of polished stone, occa- 
sionally of unsmelted copper, and in Mexico and Peru, of 
bronze. They cultivated Indian corn, or maize, but lacked 
the other great 
cereals. They 
domesticated the 
dog and the llama 
of the Andes. 
They lived in Aztec Sacrificial Knife 

clans and tribes, British Museum, London. 

ruled by headmen Length, twelve inches. The blade is of yellow, opalescent 

v.* -f TVi * chalcedony, beautifully chipped and polished. The handle is 

or CmeiS. ineir Ught-colored wood carved in the form of a man masked with 

religion probably a bird skin. Brilliant mosaic settings of turquoise, malachite, 

T 1 , . 1 and shell embellish the figure. 

did not involve 

a belief in a " Great Spirit," as is so often said, but rather 
recognized in all nature the abode of spiritual powers, mys- 
terious and wonderful, whom man ought to conciliate by 
prayers and sacrifices. In short, most of the American 
Indians were not savages, but barbarians well advanced in 
culture. 

Indian culture attained its highest development in Mexico 
and Central America, especially among the Mayas of Yucatan, 
Guatemala, and Honduras. The remains of their The 
cities — the Ninevehs and Babylons of the New Mayas 
World — lie buried in the tropical jungle, where Europeans 
first saw them, four hundred years ago. The temples, shrines, 
altars, and statues in these ancient cities show that the Mayas 
had made much progress in the fine arts. They knew enough 
astronomy to frame a solar calendar of three hundred and 
sixty-five days, and enough mathematics to employ numbers 
exceeding a million. The writing of the Mayas had reached 
the rebus ^ stage and promised to become alphabetic. When 

1 See page 9. 



632 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



their hieroglyphics have been completely deciphered, we shall 
learn much more about this gifted people. 

Several centuries before the arrival of Europeans in America, 
the so-called Aztecs came down from the north and estabhshed 
The themselves on the Mexican plateau. Here they 

Aztecs formed a confederacy of many tribes, ruled over 

by a sort of king, whose capital was Tenochtitlan, on the site 
of the present city of Mexico. 





Aztec Sacrificial Stone 

Now in the National Museum in the City of Mexico. 

The Aztecs appear to have borrowed much of their art, 
science, and knowledge of writing from their Maya neighbors. 
Aztec They built houses and temples of stone or sun- 

culture dried brick, constructed aqueducts, roads, and 

bridges, excelled in the dyeing, weaving, and spinning of cotton, 
and made most beautiful ornaments of silver and gold. They 
worshiped many gods, to which the priests offered prisoners 
of war as human sacrifices. In spite of these bloody rites, 
the Aztecs were a kind-hearted, honest people, respectful of 
the rights of property, brave in battle, and obedient to their 
native rulers. Aztec culture in some ways was scarcely 
inferior to that of the ancient Egyptians. 
The lofty table-lands of the Andes were also the seat of an 
advanced Indian culture. At the time of the 
Spanish conquest the greater part of what is now 
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile had come under 



The Incas 



Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America 633 



the sway of the Incas, the "people of the sun." The Inca 
power centered in the Peruvian city of Cuzco and on the shores 
of Lake Titicaca, which Hes twelve thousand feet above sea- 
level. In this region of magnificent scenery the traveler views 
with astonishment the ruins of vast edifices, apparently never 
completed, which were raised either by the Incas or the Indians 
whom they conquered and displaced. Though the culture of 




the Incas resembled in many ways that of the Aztecs, the 
two peoples probably never had any intercourse and hence 
remained totally unaware of each other's existence. 

224. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America 

The discoverers of the New World were naturally the pioneers 
in its exploration. The first object of the Spaniards had been 
trade with the Indies, and for a number of years, objects of 
until Magellan's voyage, they sought vainly for Spaniards 
a passage through the mainland to the Spice Islands. When, 
however, the Spaniards learned that America was rich in 
deposits of gold and silver, these metals formed the prin- 
cipal objects of their expeditions. 

The Spaniards at first had confined their settlements to the 



634 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



Greater Antilles in the West Indies/ but after the gold of these 
Ponce de islands was exhausted, they began to penetrate the 
Leon and mainland. In 15 13 a.d. Ponce de Leon, who had 
ISIs'a'd been with Columbus on his second voyage, discov- 
ered the country which he named Florida. It be- 
came the first Spanish possession in North America. In the 




An Early Map of the New World (1540 a.d.) 

same year Vasco Nunez de Balboa, from the isthmus of Panama, 
sighted, the Pacific. He entered its waters, sword in hand, and 
took formal possession in the name of the king of Spain. 

The overthrow of the Aztec power was accomplished by 
Hernando Cortes, with the aid of Indian allies. 
Many large towns and half a thousand villages, 
together with immense quantities of treasure, fell 
into the hands of the conquerors. Henceforth 
Mexico, or "New Spain," became the most im- 
portant Spanish possession in America. Francisco Pizarro, 

1 Cuba, Hispaniola (now divided between the republics of Haiti and Santo Do- 
mingo), Porto Rico, and Jamaica. 



Conquest 
of Mexico, 
1519-1521 
A.D., and 
Peru, 1531- 
1537 A.D. 



The Spanish Colonial Empire 



635 



who invaded Peru with a handful of soldiers, succeeded in 
overthrowing the Incas. Pizarro founded in Peru the city of 
Lima. It replaced Cuzco as the capital of the country and 
formed the seat of the Spanish government in South America. 

The Spaniards, during the earher part of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, heard much of a fabled king whom they called El Dorado.^ 
This king, it was said, used to smear himself with ^ 
gold dust at an annual reUgious ceremony. In 
time the idea arose that somewhere in South America existed 
a fabled country marvelously rich in precious metals and gems. 
These stories stirred the imagination of the Spaniards, who 
fitted out many expeditions to find the gilded man and his 
gilded realm. The quest for El Dorado opened up the valleys 
of the Amazon and Orinoco and the extensive forest region 
east of the Andes. Spanish explorers also tried to find EI 
Dorado in North America. De Soto's expedition led to the 
discovery of the Mississippi in 1541 a.d., and Coronado's 
search for the ''Seven Cities of Cibola" not only added 
greatly to geographical knowledge of the Southwest, but 
also resulted in the extension of Spanish dominion over this 
part of the American continent. About 1605 a.d. the 
Spaniards founded Santa Fe and made it the capital of 
their government in New Mexico. 

225. The Spanish Colonial Empire 

The wonderful exploits of the conquistador es (conquerors) 
laid the foundations of the Spanish colonial empire. It in- 
cluded Florida, New Mexico, Cahfornia, Mexico, gp^^^^ 
Central America, the West Indies, and all South the New 
America except Brazil.^ The rule of Spain over 
these dominions lasted nearly three hundred years. During 
this time she gave her language, her government, and her 
rehgion to half the New World. 

^ Spanish for the "gilded one." 

^ See the map between pages 628-629. The PhiUppines, discovered by Magellan 
in 15 2 1 A.D., also belonged to Spain, though by the demarcation line these islands 
lay within the Portuguese sphere of influence. 



636 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



The Spaniards brought few women with them and hence 

had to find their wives among the Indians. Intermarriage 

Intermar- the two peoples early became common. The 

nage of result was the mixed race which one still finds 
Spaniards 

and throughout the greater part of Spanish America. 

Indians jj^ ^j^jg ^^^^^ ^^ie Indian strain predominates, be- 
cause almost everywhere the aborigines were far more numer- 
ous than the white settlers. 

The Spaniards treated the Indians of the West Indies most 
harshly and forced them to work in gold mines and on sugar 
Treatment plantations. The hard labor, to which the In- 
of the dians were unaccustomed, broke down their health, 

Indians almost the entire native population disap- 

peared within a few years after the coming of the whites. 
This terrible tragedy was not repeated, on the mainland, for 
the Spanish government stepped in to preserve the aborigines 
from destruction. It prohibited their enslavement and gave 
them the protection of humane laws. Though these laws 
were not always well enforced, the Indians of Mexico and 
Peru increased in numbers under Spanish rule and often 
became prosperous traders, farmers, and artisans. 

The Spaniards succeeded in winning many of the Indians to 
Christianity. Devoted monks penetrated deep into the wilder- 
Conversion ^^^^ brought to the aborigines, not only the 
of the Christian religion, but also European civilization. 

Indians many places the natives were gathered into 

permanent villages, or "missions," each one with its church and 
school. Converts who learned to read and write often became 
priests or entered the monastic orders. The monks also took 
much interest in the material welfare of the Indians and taught 
them how to farm, how to build houses, and how to spin and 
weave and cook by better methods than their own. 

The most familiar examples of the Spanish missions are those 
The Cali- state of California. During the last quar- 

fornia ter of the eighteenth century Franciscan friars 

nussions erected no less than eighteen mission stations 
along the Pacific coast from San Diego to San Francisco. 



The Spanish Colonial Empire 637 



The stations were connected by the ''Kiag's Road," ^ which 
stni remains the priQcipal highway of the state. Some of the 
mission buildings now he in ruins and others have entirely 
disappeared. But such a well-preserved structure as the mis- 
sion of Santa Barbara recalls a Benedictine monastery,^ with 
its shady cloisters, secluded courtyard, and timbered roof 
covered with red tiles. It is a bit of the Old World trans- 
planted to the New. 

The civilizing work of Spain in the New World is sometimes 
forgotten. Here were the earhest American hospitals and 
asylums, for the use of Indians and negroes as spanish- 
weU as of Spaniards. Here were the earhest American 
American schools and coUeges. Twelve institu- 
tions of higher learning, ah modeled upon the university of 
Salamanca, arose in Spanish America during the colonial 
period. Eight of these came into existence before the crea- 
tion ui 1636 A.D. of Harvard University, the oldest in the 
United States. The pioneer printing press in the Western 
Hemisphere was set up at Mexico City in 1535 a.d.; no print- 
ing press reached the English colonies till more than one hun- 
dred years later. To the valuable books by Spanish scholars 
we owe much of our knowledge of the Mayas, Aztecs, and 
other Indian tribes. The first American newspaper was pub- 
hshed at Mexico City in 1693 a.d. The fine arts also flour- 
ished in the Spanish colonies, and architects of the United 
States have now begun to copy the beautiful churches and 
pubhc buildings of Mexico and Peru. 

The government of Spain administered its colonial dominions 
in the spirit of monopoly. As far as possible it excluded French, 
English, and other foreigners from trading with Spanish 
Spanish America. It also discouraged ship-build- colonial 
ing, manufacturing, and even the cultivation of ^^^^^ 
the vine and the olive, lest the colonists should compete with 
home industries. The colonies were regarded only as a work- 
shop for the production of the precious metals and raw materials. 
This unwise pohcy very largely accounts for the economic 

» In Spanish El Camino Real. ^ See page 355. 



638 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 




The Cabot 
voyages, 
1497-1498 
A.D. 



backwardness of Mexico, Peru, and other Spanish-American 
countries at the present day. Their rich natural resources 
have as yet scarcely begun to be utilized. 

226. English and French Explorations in America 

The English based their claim to the right to colonize North 
America on the discoveries of John Cabot, an Italian mariner 

in the service of the 
Tudor king, Henry VII.^ 
In 1497 A.D. Cabot sailed 
from Bristol across the 
northern Atlantic and made land 
somewhere between Labrador and 
Nova Scotia. The following year he 
seems to have undertaken a second 
voyage and to have explored the coast 
of North America nearly as far as 
Florida. Cabot, like Columbus, be- 
lieved he had reached Cathay and the 
dominions of the Great Khan. Be- 
cause Cabot found neither gold nor 
opportunities for profitable trade, his 
expeditions were considered a failure, 
and for a long time the English took 
no further interest in exploring the 
New World. 

The discovery by Magellan of a 
strait leading into the Pacific aroused 
hope that a similar pas- 
sage, beyond the regions 
controlled by Spain,, 
might exist in North 
America. In 1534 a.d. the French 
king, Francis I, sent Jacques Cartier to look for it. Cartier 
found the gulf and river which he named after St. Lawrence, 
and also tried to establish a settlement near where Quebec 

1 See page 518. 



Cabot Memorial Tower 

Erected at ' ristol, England, in 
memory of John Cabot and his 
sons. The foundation stone as 
laid on June 24, 1897 a.d., the 
four-hundredth anniversary of 
John Cabot's first sight of the 
continent of North America. 



Cartier's 
voyages, 
1534-1542 
A.D. 



English and French Explorations 



639 



now stands. The venture was not successful, and the French 
did not undertake the colonization of Canada till the first dec- 
ade of the seventeenth century. 

English sailors also sought a road to India by the so-called 
Northwest Passage. It was soon found to be an impossible 
route, for during half the year the seas were j.^^ 
frozen and during the other half they were filled Northwest 
with icebergs. However, the search for the ^^^^^^e 
Northwest Passage added much to geographical knowledge. 
The names Frobisher Bay, Davis Strait, and Baffin Land still 
preserve the memory of the navigators who first explored the 
channels leading into the Arctic Ocean. 

When the English realized how little profit was to be gained 
by voyages to the cold and desolate north, they turned south- 
ward to warmer waters. Here, of course, they The English 
came upon the Spaniards, who had no disposition "sea dogs" 
to share with foreigners the profitable trade of the New World. 
Though England and Spain were not at war, the English "sea 
dogs," as they called themselves, did not scruple to ravage 
the Spanish colonies and to capture the huge, clumsy treasure- 
ships carrying gold and silver to Spain. The most famous 
of the "sea dogs," Sir Francis Drake, was the first English- 
man to sail round the world (i 577-1 580 a.d.). 

Four years after Drake had completed his voyage, another 

EngHsh seaman. Sir Walter Raleigh, sent out an expedition 

to find a good site for a settlement in North 

A • ^1 1 111 . The Raleigh 

America. The explorers reached the coast of colonies, 

North Carolina and returned with glowing ac- 15^^1590 

counts of the country, which was named Virginia, 

in honor of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen." But Raleigh's 

colonies in Virginia failed miserably, and the Enghsh made 

no further attempt to settle there till the reign of James I, 

early in the seventeenth century. 

227. The Old World and the New 

The New World contained two virgin continents, full of 
natural resources and capable in a high degree of colonization. 



640 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



The native peoples, comparatively few in number and bar- 
Expansion barian in culture, could not offer much resistance 
of Europe |-]^g explorers, missionaries, traders, and colo- 

nists from the Old World. The Spanish and Portuguese in 
the sixteenth century, followed by the French, English, and 
Dutch in the seventeenth century, repeopled America and 
brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded into a 
Greater Europe beyond the ocean. 

In the Middle Ages the Mediterranean and the Baltic had 
been the principal highways of commerce. The discovery of 
Shifting of America, followed immediately by the opening of 
trade routes ^j^g Cape route to the Indies, shifted commercial 
activity from these enclosed seas to the Atlantic Ocean. Venice, 
Genoa, Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bruges gradually gave way, as 
trading centers, to Lisbon and Cadiz, Bordeaux and Cherbourg, 
Antwerp and Amsterdam, London and Liverpool. One may 
say, therefore, that the year 1492 a.d. inaugurated the Atlantic 
period of European history. The time may come, perhaps even 
now it is dawning, when the center of gravity of the commer- 
cial world will shift still farther westward to the Pacific. 

The discovery of America revealed to Europeans a new 
source of the precious metals. The Spaniards soon secured 
Increased large quantities of gold by plundering the In- 
oTt^^^^ dians of Mexico and Peru of their stored-up 
precious Wealth. After the discovery in 1545 a.d. of the 
metals wonderfully rich silver mines of Potosi in Bolivia, 

the output of silver much exceeded that of gold. It is esti- 
mated that by the end of the sixteenth century the American 
mines had produced at least three times as much gold and 
silver as had been current in Europe at the beginning of the 
century. 

The Spaniards could not keep this new treasure. Having 

few industries themselves, they were obliged to 
Conse- , . . , ' . , . . 

quences of send it out, as fast as they received it, m pay- 

the enlarged^ ment for their imports of European goods. Spain 

acted as a huge sieve through which the gold 

and silver of America entered all the countries of Europe. 



The Old World and the New 



641 



Money, now more plentiful, purchased far less than in former 
times; in other words, the prices of all commodities rose, wages 
advanced, and manufacturers and traders had additional capital 
to use in their undertakings. The Middle Ages had suffered 
from the lack of sufficient money with which to do business ; ^ 
from the beginning of modern times the world has been better 
suppHed with the indispensable medium of exchange. 

But America was much more than a treasury of the precious 
metals. Many commodities, hitherto unknown, soon found 
their way from the New World to the Old. Among j^^^ 
these were maize, the potato, which, when culti- commodities 
vated in Europe, became the "bread of the poor," ^^^po^ted 
chocolate and cocoa made from the seeds of the cacao tree, 
Peruvian bark, or quinine, so useful in malarial fevers, cochineal, 
the dye-woods of Brazil, and the mahogany of the West Indies. 
America also sent large supplies of cane-sugar, molasses, fish, 
whale-oil, and furs. The use of tobacco, which Columbus first 
observed among the Indians, spread rapidly over Europe and 
thence extended to the rest of the world. All these new 
American products became common articles of consumption 
and so raised the standard of living in European countries. 

To the economic effects of the discoveries must be added their 

effects on politics. The Atlantic Ocean now formed, not only 

the commercial, but also the political center of the ^ . . 

' . ^ Political 

world. The Atlantic-facing countries, first Portu- effects of 

gal and Spain, then Holland, France, and England, 

? r r -r^ rr^i • 1 coveries 

became the great powers of Europe. Their trade 

rivahies and contests for colonial possessions have been potent 
causes of European wars for the last four hundred years. 

The sudden disclosure of oceans, islands, and continents, 
covering one- third of the globe, worked a revolution in geo- 
graphical ideas. The earth was found to be far ^ ^ 
° ^ Effects of 

larger than men had supposed it to be, and the the dis- 

imagination was stirred by the thought of other covenes 

. . 1 . 1 . 1 1 , -r^ on thought 

amazmg discoveries which might be made. From 

the sixteenth century to the twentieth the work of exploration 

I See page 541. 



642 Geographical Discovery and Colonization 



has continued, till now few regions of the world yet remain 
unmapped. At the same time came acquaintance with many 
strange plants, animals, and peoples, and so scientific knowl- 
edge replaced the quaint fancies of the Middle Ages. 

The sixteenth century in Europe was the age of that revolt 
against the Roman Church called the Protestant Reformation. 
Effects of During this period, however, the Church won her 
the discov- victories over the American aborigines. What she 
reUgion °° lost of territory, wealth, and influence in Europe was 
more than offset by what she gained in America. 
Furthermore, the region now occupied by the United States 
furnished in the seventeenth century an asylum from religious 
persecution, as was proved when Puritans settled in New 
England, Roman Catholics in Maryland, and Quakers in Penn- 
sylvania. The vacant spaces of America offered plenty of room 
for all who would worship God in their own way. Thus the 
New World became a refuge from the intolerance of the Old. 

Studies 

I. On an outline map indicate those parts of the world known in the time of 
Colimibus (before 1492 a.d.). 2. On an outline map indicate the voyages of 
discovery of Vasco da Gama, Columbus (first voyage), John Cabot, and Magellan. 
3. What particular discoveries were made by Cartier, Drake, Balboa, De Soto,, 
Ponce de Leon, and Coronado? 4. Compare the Cosmas map (page 617) with 
the map of the world according to Homer (page 76). 5. Compare the Hereford 
map (page 617) with the map of the world according to Ptolemy (page 132). 

6. Why has Marco Polo been called the "Columbus of the East Indies"?" 

7. "Cape Verde not only juts out into the Atlantic, but stands forth as a promon- 
tory in human history." Comment on this statement. 8. How did Vasco da Gama 
complete the work of Prince Henry the Navigator? 9. Show that Lisbon in the 
sixteenth century was the commercial successor of Venice. 10. "Had Columbus 
perished in mid-ocean, it is doubtful whether America would have remained long^ 
undiscovered." Comment on this statement. 11. Why did no one suggest that 
the New World be called after Columbus? 12. Show that Magellan achieved 
what Columbus planned. 13. Why did Balboa call the Pacific the "South Sea"? 
14. Why is Roman law followed in all Spanish- American countries? 15. In what 
parts of the world is Spanish still the common language? 16. Why did the Ger- 
mans fail to take part in the work of discovery and colonization? 17. Show that 
the three words "gospel, glory, and gold" simi up the principal motives of Euro- 
pean colonization in the sixteenth century. 18. Compare the motives which led 
to the colonization of the New World with those which led to Greek colonization. 
19. "The opening of the Atlantic to continuous exploration is the most mo- 
mentous step in the history of man's occupation of the earth." Does this state- 
ment seem to be justified? 



CHAPTER XXVII 



THE REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS WARS, 
1517-1648 A.D.1 

228. Decline of the Papacy 

The Papacy, victorious in the long struggle with the Holy 
Roman Empire, reached during the thirteenth century the 
height of its temporal power. The popes at this papa-y 
time were the greatest sovereigns in Europe. They in the 
ruled a large part of Italy, had great influence in thirteenth 
the affairs of France, England, Spain, and other 
countries, and in Germany named and deposed emperors. 
From their capital at Rome they sent forth their legates to 
every European court and issued the laws binding on western 
Christendom. 

The universal dominion of the Church proved useful and 
even necessary in feudal times, when kings were weak and 
nobles were strong. The Church of the early „ . . 

Friction 

Middle Ages served as the chief unifying force in between 
Europe. When, however, the kings had repressed gj^^^^^ 
feudalism, they took steps to extend their author- 
ity over the Church as well. They tried, therefore, to restrict 
the privileges of ecclesiastical courts, to impose taxes on the 
clergy, as on their own subjects, and to dictate the appoint- 
ment of bishops and abbots to office. This policy naturally 
led to much friction between popes and kings, between Church 
and State. 

The Papacy put forth its most extensive claims under Boniface 
VIII. The character of these claims is shown by two bulls 

1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxiii, "Martin 
Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation"; chapter xxiv, "England in the 
Age of Elizabeth.'" 

643 



644 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



which he issued. The first forbade all laymen, under penalty 

„ of excommunication, to collect taxes on Church 

Pontificate 

of Boniface lands, and all clergymen to pay them. The 

yS J^^^ second announced in unmistakeable terms both 
1303 A.D. .111 1 

the spiritual and the temporal supremacy of the 

popes. ''Submission to the Roman pontiff," declared Boni- 
face, "is altogether necessary to salvation for every human 
creature." 

Boniface had employed the exalted language of Gregory VII 
in deahng with Henry IV, but he found an opponent in a mon- 
Boniface ^^^^ more resolute and resourceful than any Holy 
and Philip Roman Emperor. This was Philip the Fair,^ 
the Fair j^-^^ ^£ Yrsiuce. Philip answered the first bull by 
refusing to allow any gold and silver to be exported from France 
to Italy. The pope, thus deprived of valuable revenues, gave 
way and acknowledged that the French ruler had a limited 
right to tax the clergy. Another dispute soon arose, however, 
as the result of Philip's imprisonment and trial of an obnoxious 
papal legate. Angered by this action, Boniface prepared to 
excommunicate the king and depose him from the throne. 
Philip retaliated by calling together the Estates-General 
and asking their support for the preservation of the ''ancient 
liberty of France." The nobles, the clergy, and the ''third 
estate" rallied around Philip, accused the pope of heresy 
and tyranny, and declared that the French king was subject 
to God alone. 

The last act of the drama was soon played. Philip sent his 
emissaries into Italy to arrest the pope and bring him to trial 
Anagni, before a general council in France. At Anagni, 
1303 A.D. j^ga^j. Rome, a band of hireling soldiers stormed the 
papal palace and made Boniface a prisoner. The citizens of 
Anagni soon freed him, but the shock of the humiliation broke 
the old man's spirit and he died soon afterwards. The poet 
Dante, in the Divine Comedy,'^ speaks with awe of the outrage: 
"Christ had been again crucified among robbers; and the 
vinegar and gall had been again pressed to his lips."^ The 

1 See page 514. 2 See page 591. 3 Purgatorio, xx, 88-90. 



Decline of the Papacy 



645 



historian sees in this event the end of the temporal power of the 
Papacy. 

Soon after the death of Boniface, Philip succeeded in having 

the archbishop of Bordeaux chosen as head of the Church. 

The new pope removed the papal court to Avignon, The 

a town just outside the French frontier of those "Babylonian 

Captivity," 

days. The popes Hved in Avignon for nearly 1309-1377 

seventy years. This period is usually described 

as the ''Babylonian Captivity" of the Church, a name 

which recaUs the exile of the Jews from their native land.^ 

The long absence of the popes from Rome lessened their 

power, and the suspicion that they were the mere vassals of 

the French crown seriously impaired the respect in which 

they had been held. 

Following the "Babylonian Captivity" came the "Great 

Schism." Shortly after the return of the papal court to Rome, 

an Italian was elected pope as Urban VI. The ^, ^ 

, • 1 1 . r T The ** Great 

cardmals m the French mterest refused to accept Schism," 

him, declared his election void, and named Clement 

VII as pope. Clement withdrew to Avignon, 

while Urban remained in Rome. Western Christendom could 

not decide which one to obey. Some countries declared for 

Urban, while other countries accepted Clement. The spectacle 

of two rival popes, each holding himself out as the only true 

successor of St. Peter, continued for about forty years and 

injured the Papacy more than anything else that had happened 

to it. 

The schism in western Christendom was finally healed at the 

Council of Constance. There were three "phan- ^ ^ 
,, , . . , , 11 1 1 Council of 

tom popes at this time, but they were all deposed Constance, 

in favor of a new pontiff, Martin V. The Cath- 

ohc world now had a single head, but it was not 

easy to revive the old, unquestioning loyalty to him as God's 

vicar on earth. 

From the time of Martin V the Papacy became more and 
more an Itahan power. The popes neglected European pohtics 

1 See pages 3^37- 



646 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



and gave their chief attention to the States of the Church. A 
^j^g number of the popes took much interest in the 

Renaissance Renaissance movement and became its enthusiastic 
patrons.^ They kept up splendid courts, col- 
lected manuscripts, paintings, and statues, and erected magnifi- 



15° 10^ 5° 0^ &^ 10° iri° 20 ° 




The Great Schism, 1378-1417 a.d. 



cent palaces and churches in Rome. Some European peoples, 
especially in Germany, looked askance at such luxury and 
begrudged the heavy taxes which were necessary to support 
it. This feeling against the papacy also helped to provoke the 
Reformation. 

The worldliness of some of the popes was too often reflected 
in the lives of the lesser clergy. Throughout the thirteenth, 
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the Church encountered 

1 See page 594. 



Heresies and Heretics 



647 



much criticism from reformers. Thus, the famous humanist, 
Erasmus,^ wrote his Praise of Folly to expose the complaints 
vices and temporal ambitions of bishops and against the 
monks, the fooHsh speculations of theologians, and ^^^^^^ 
the excessive rehance which common people had on pilgrimages, 
festivals, rehcs, and other aids to devotion. So great was the 
demand for this work that it went through twenty-seven large 
editions during the author's hfetime. Erasmus and others like 
him were loyal sons of the Church, but they believed they 
could best serve her interests by effecting her reform. Some 
men went further, however, and demanded wholesale changes 
in CathoUc behef and worship. These men were the heretics. 

229. Heresies and Heretics 

During the first centuries of our era, when the Christians 
had formed a forbidden sect, they claimed toleration on the 
ground that rehgious behef is voluntary and not Persecution 
something which can be enforced by law. This heretics 
view changed after Christianity triumphed in the Roman 
Empire and enjoyed the support, instead of the opposition, of 
the government. The Church, backed by the State, no longer 
advocated freedom of conscience, but began to persecute people 
who held heretical behef s. 

It is difficult for those who hve in an age of rehgious tolera- 
tion to understand the horror which heresy inspired in the 

Middle Ages. A heretic was a traitor to the „ ^. , 
° . Medieval 

Church, for he denied the doctrines beheved to be attitude 

essential to salvation. It seemed a Christian toward 

heresy 

duty to compel the heretic to recant, lest he imperil 
his eternal wehare. If he persisted in his impious course, then 
the earth ought to be rid of one who was a source of danger to 
the faithful and an enemy of the Almighty, 

Although executions for heresy had occurred as early as the 
fourth century ,2 for a long time milder penalties Punishment 
were usually inflicted. The heretic might be .ex- ®^ heresy 
iled, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property and his rights 
1 See page 600. 2 See page 344. 



648 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



as a citizen. The death penahy was seldom invoked by the 
Church before the thirteenth century. Since ecclesiastical 
law forbade the Church to shed blood, the State stepped in to 
seize the heretic and put him to death, most often by fire. We 
must remember that in medieval times cruel punishments were 
imposed for even slight offenses, and hence men saw nothing 
wrong in inflicting the worst of punishments for what was 
believed to be the worst of crimes. 

In spite of all measures of repression heretics were not un- 
common during the later Middle Ages. Some heretical move- 
The ments spread over entire communities. The most 

Albigenses important was that of the Albigenses, so called 
from the town of Albi in southern France, where many of 
them lived. Their doctrines are not well known, but they 
seem to have believed in the existence of two gods — one good 
(whose son was Christ), the other evil (whose son was Satan). 
The Albigenses even set up a rival church, with its priests, 
bishops, and councils. 

The failure of attempts to convert the Albigenses by peaceful 

means led the pope. Innocent III,^ to preach a crusade against 

Crusade them. Those who entered upon it were promised 

against the ^j^g usual privileges of crusaders.^ A series of 
Albigenses, 

1209-1229 bloody wars now followed, in the course of which 
thousands of men, women, and children perished. 
But the Albigensian sect did not entirely disappear for more 
than a century, and then only after numberless trials and 
executions for heresy. 

The followers of Peter Waldo, who lived in the twelfth 
century, made no effort to set up a new religion in Europe. 
The They objected, however, to certain practices of 

Waldenses ^-j^g Church, such as masses for the dead and the 
adoration of saints. They also condemned the luxury of the 
clergy and urged that Christians should live like the Apostles, 
charitable and poor. To the Waldenses the Bible was a suffi- 
cient guide to the rehgious life, and so they translated parts of 
the Scriptures and allowed everyone to preach, without distinc- 

1 See page 461. 2 See page 468. 



Heresies and Heretics 



649 



tion of age, or rank, or sex. The Waldenses spread through 
many European countries, but being poor and lowly men they 
did not exert much influence as reformers. The sect survived 
severe persecution and now forms a branch of the Protestant 
Church in Italy. 

Behefs very similar to those of the Waldenses w^re enter- 
tained by John Wychffe,^ master of an Oxford college and a 
popular preacher. He, 
too, appealed from the 
authority of ^^^^ 
the Church Wycliffe, 

to the au- 1320-1384 
A.D. 

thority of 

the Bible. With the 
assistance of two friends 
Wycliffe produced the 
first EngHsh translation 
of the Scriptures. Man- 
uscript copies of the 
work had a large circu- 
lation, until the gov- 
ernment suppressed it. 
Wycliffe was not mo- 
lested in life, but the 
Council of Constance 
denounced his teaching 
and ordered that his bones should be dug up, burned, and 
cast into a stream. 

WycHffe had organized bands of ''poor priests" to spread 
the simple truths of the Bible through all England. They 
went out, staff in hand and clad in long, russet The 
gowns, and preached to the common people in the LoUards 
English language, wherever an audience could be found. The 
Lollards, as Wycliffe's followers were known, not only attacked 
many beliefs and practices of the Church, but also demanded 
social reforms. For instance, they declared that all wars 

1 Or Wyclif . 




John Wyclifpe 

After an old print 



650 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 

were sinful and were but plundering and murdering the poor 
to win glory for kings. The Lollards had to endure much 
persecution for heresy. Nevertheless their work lived on 
and sowed in England and Scotland the seeds of the 
Reformation. 

The doctrines of Wycliffe found favor with Anne of Bohemia, 
wife of King Richard 11,^ and through her they reached that 
John Huss, country. Here they attracted the attention of 
1373 (?)-i4i5 John Huss,2 a distinguished scholar in the uni- 
versity of Prague. Wycliffe's writings confirmed 
Huss in his criticism of many doctrines of the Church. 
He attacked the clergy in sermons and pamphlets and also 
objected to the supremacy of the pope. The sentence of 
excommunication pronounced against him did not shake his 
reforming zeal. Finally Huss was cited to appear before the 
Council of Constance, then in session. Relying on the safe 
conduct given him by the German emperor, Huss appeared 
before the council, only to be declared guilty of teaching "many 
things evil, scandalous, seditious, and dangerously heretical." 
The emperor then violated the safe conduct — no promise 
made to a heretic was considered binding — and allowed Huss 
to be burnt outside the walls of Constance. Thus perished the 
man who, more than all others, is regarded as the forerunner of 
Luther and the Reformation. 

The flames which burned Huss set all Bohemia afire. The 
Bohemians, a Slavic people, regarded him as a national hero 
The Hussite and made his martyrdom an excuse for rebelling 
^^^^ against the Holy Roman Empire. The Hussite 

wars, which followed, thus formed a political rather than a 
religious struggle. The Bohemians did not gain freedom, and 
their country still remains a Hapsburg possession. But the 
sense of nationalism is not extinct there, and Bohemia may 
some day become an independent state. 

1 See page 611. 2 Or Hus. 



Luther and the Reformation in Germany 651 



230. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reforma- 
tion in Germany, 1517-1522 A.D. 

Though there were many reformers before the Reformation, 
the begimiing of that movement is rightly associated with the 
name of Martin Luther. He was the son of a Martin 
German peasant, who, by industry and frugahty, 1483-1546 
had won a small competence. Thanks to his A.D. 
father's self-sacrifice, Luther enjoyed a good education in 
scholastic philosophy at the uni- 
versity of Erfurt. Having taken 
the degrees of bachelor and master 
of arts, Luther began to study law, 
but an acute sense of his sinfulness 
and a desire to save his soul soon 
drove him into a monastery. 
There he read the Bible and the 
writings of the Church Fathers 
and found at last the peace of 
mind he sought. A few years later 
Luther paid a visit to Rome, 
which opened his eyes to the 
worldhness and general laxity of 
life in the capital of the Papacy. 
He returned to Germany and became a professor of theology in 
the university of Wittenberg, newly founded by Frederick the 
Wise, elector of Saxony. Luther's sermons and lectures at- 
tracted large audiences; students began to flock to Wittenberg; 
and the elector grew proud of the rising young teacher who 
was making his university famous. 

But Luther was soon to emerge from his academic retirement 
and to become, quite unintentionally, a reformer. In 15 17 
A.D. there came into the neighborhood of Witten- 
berg a Dominican friar named Tetzel, selhng in- 
dulgences for the erection of the new St. Peter's at Rome.^ 




IMartin Luther 
After a portrait by Hans Holbein 
the Younger 



Tetzel and 
indulgences 



I See page 455. 



652 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars 



An indulgence, according to the teaching of the Church, formed 
a remission of the temporal punishment, or penance,^ due to 
sin, if the sinner had expressed his repentance and had promised 
to atone for his misdeeds. It was also supposed to free the 
person who received it from some or all of his punishment after 
death in Purgatory Indulgences were granted for participa- 
tion in crusades, pilgrimages, and other good works. Later 
on they were granted for money, which was expected to be 
applied to some pious purpose. Many of the German princes 
opposed this method of raising funds for the Church, because 
it took so much money out of their dominions. Their sale 
had also been condemned on religious grounds by Huss and 
Erasmus. 

Luther began his reforming career by an attack upon indul- 
gences. He did not deny their usefulness altogether, but 
Posting of pointed out that they lent themselves to grave 
five ttieses abuses. Common people, who could not under- 
1517 A.D. stand the Latin in which they were written, often 
thought that they wiped away the penalties of sin, even 
without true repentance. These criticisms Luther set forth in 
ninety-five theses or propositions, which he offered to defend 
against all opponents. In accordance with the custom of me- 
dieval scholars, Luther posted his theses on the door of the 
church at Wittenberg, where all might see them. They were 
composed in Latin, but were at once translated into German, 
printed, and spread broadcast over Germany. Their effect 
was so great that before long the sale of indulgences in that 
country almost ceased. 

The scholarly critic of indulgences soon passed into an open 
foe of the Papacy. Luther found that his theological views 
Burning of bore a close resemblance to those of Wycliffe and 
bull ^1520 John Huss, yet he refused to give them up as 
A.D. heretical. Instead, he wrote three bold pam- 

phlets, in one of which he appealed to the "Christian nobility 
of the German nation" to rally together against Rome. The 
pope, at first, had paid little attention to the controversy about 

1 See page 441. 2 See page 443. 



Luther and the Reformation m Germany 653 



indulgences, declaring it "'a mere squabble of monks,'" but lie 
now issued a bull against Luther, ordering Mm to recant within 
sixty days or be excommunicated. The papal bull did not 
frighten Luther or withdraw from him popular support. He 
burnt it in the market square of Wittenberg, in the presence of 
a concourse of students and to^\"nsfolk. This dramatic answer 
to the pope deeply stirred all Germany. 

The next scene of the Reformation was staged at Worms, at 
an important assembly, or Diet, of the Holy Roman Empire. 
The Diet sunmioned Luther to appear before it j^-^. 
for examination, and the emperor. Charles V, Worms, 
gave Viim a safe conduct. Luther's friends, re- ^^^^ 
membering the treatment of Huss, advised him not to accept 
the summons, but he declared that he would enter Worms 
"in the face of the gates of Hell and the princes of the 
air.'' In the great hall of the Diet Luther bravely faced 
the princes, nobles, and clerg}- of Germany. He refused to 
retract anything he had written, unless his statements could 
be shown to contradict the Bible. "It is neither right 
nor safe to act against conscience,"' Luther said. ^'God help 
me. -\men."" 

Only one thing remained to do vvdth Luther. He was ordered 
to return to Wittenberg and there await the imperial edict 
declaring him a heretic and outlaw. But the Luther at 
elector of Saxony, who feared for Luther's safety. bm-g^i^i_ 
had him carried on secretly to the castle of Wart- 1522 A.D. 
burg. Here Luther remained for nearly a year, engaged in 
translating the Xew Testament into German. There had been 
many earUer translations into German, but Luther's was the 
first from the Greek original. His version, simple, forcible, and 
easy to understand, enjoyed wide popularity and helped to nx 
for Germans the form of their hterar}- language. Luther 
afterwards completed a translation of the entire Bible, which 
the printing press multiphed in thousands of copies throughout 
Germany. 

Though still under the ban of the empire, Luther left the 
Wartburg m 1522 a.d. and returned to Wittenberg. He hved 



654 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



here, unmolested, until his death, twenty-four years later. 
Luther's During this time he flooded the country with 
leadership pamphlets, wrote innumerable letters, composed 
many fine hymns,^ and prepared a catechism, "a right Bible," 
said he, "for the laity." * Thus Luther became the guide and 
patron of the reformatory movement which he had started. 

231. Charles V and the Spread of the German 
Reformation, 1519-1556 A.D. 

The young man who as Holy Roman Emperor presided at 
the Diet of Worms had assumed the imperial crown only two 
Charles V, years previously. A namesake of Charlemagne, 
1519-1556 Charles V held sway over dominions even more 
A.D. extensive than those which had belonged to the 

Frankish king. Through his mother, a daughter of Ferdinand 
and Isabella,^ he inherited Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the Spanish 
possessions in the New World. Through his father, a son of 
the emperor Maximihan I, he became ruler of Burgundy and 
the Netherlands and also succeeded to the Austrian territories 
of the Hapsburgs. Charles was thus the most powerful 
monarch in Europe. 

Charles, as a devout Roman Catholic, had no sympathy for 
the Reformation. At Worms, on the day following Luther's 
Charles V refusal to recant, the emperor had expressed his 
and the determination to stake "all his dominions, his 
Lutherans fnends, his body and blood, his life and soul" upon 
the extinction of the Lutheran heresy. This might have been 
an easy task, had Charles undertaken it at once. But a revolt 
in Spain, wars with the French king, Francis I, and conflicts 
with the Ottoman Turks led to his long absence from Germany 
and kept him from proceeding effectively against the Lu- 
therans, until it was too late. 

The Reformation in Germany appealed to many classes., 
To patriotic Germans it seemed a revolt against a foreign 

1 His hymn Ein feste Burg isi unser Gott ("A mighty fortress is our God") has* 
been called "the Marseillaise of the Reformation." 

2 See page 522. 



Charles V and the Reformation 



power — the Italian Papacy. To men of pious mind it offered 
the attractions of a simple faith which took the 
Bible as the rule of Hfe. Wordly-minded princes "Reformed 
saw in it an opportunity to despoil the Church ^®^*sion " 
of lands and revenues. For these reasons Luther's teachings 
found ready acceptance. 
Priests married, Luther 
himself setting the ex- 
ample, monks left their 
monasteries, and the "Re- 
formed Religion" took the 
place of Roman Cathoh- 
cism in most parts of 
northern and central Ger- 
many. South Germany, 
however, did not fall away 
from the pope and has 
remained Roman CathoHc 
to the present time. 

Though Germany had 
now divided into two re- 
Hgious parties, the legal 
position of Lutheranism 
remained for a long time 
in doubt. A Diet held in 
1526 A.D. tried to shelve 
the question by allowing 
each German state to conduct its religious affairs as it saw 
fit. But at the next Diet, three years later, a ^j^^ 
majority of the assembled princes decided that Protestants, 
the Edict of Worms against Luther and his ^^^^ 
followers should be enforced. The Lutheran princes at once 
issued a vigorous protest against such action. Because of 
this protest those who separated from the Roman Church 
came to be called Protestants. 

It was not till 1546 a.d., the year of Luther's death, that 
Charles V felt his hands free to suppress the rising tide 




Charles V 

A portrait of the emperor at the age of 48, by 
the Venetian painter Titian. 



656 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars 



of Protestantism. By this time the Lutheran princes had 
Peace of formed a league for mutual protection. Charles 
Augsburg, brought Spanish troops into Germany and tried 
to break up the league by force. Civil war raged 
till 1555 A.D., when both sides agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. 
It was a compromise. The ruler of each state — Germany 
then contained over three hundred states — was to decide 
whether his subjects should be Lutherans or Catholics. Thus 
the peace by no means established religious toleration, since all 
Germans had to beheve as their prince believed. However, it 
recognized Lutheranism as a legal religion and ended the 
attempts to crush the German Reformation. 

Meanwhile Luther's doctrines spread into Scandinavian 
Lutheranism l^-i^ds. The rulers of Denmark, Norway, and 
in Scandi- Sweden closed the monasteries and compelled 
"^^^^ the Roman Catholic bishops to surrender eccle- 

siastical property to the crown. Lutheranism became hence- 
forth the official rehgion of these three countries. 



232. The Reformation in Switzerland; 
Zwingli and Calvin 

The Reformation in Switzerland began with the work 
of Zwingli. He was the contemporary but not the disciple 
Huldreich of Luther. From his pulpit in the cathedral of 
148T?1531 Zurich, Zwingli proclaimed the Scriptures as the 
A.D. sole guide of faith and denied the supremacy of 

the pope. Many of the Swiss cantons accepted his teaching 
and broke away from obedience to Rome. Civil war soon 
followed between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and 
Zwingli fell in the struggle. After his death the two parties 
made a peace which allowed each canton to determine its own 
religion. Switzerland has continued to this day to be part 
Roman Catholic and part Protestant. 

The Protestants in Switzerland did not remain long without 
a leader. To Geneva came in 1536 a.d. a young Frenchman 
named Calvin. He had just published his Institutes oj the 



Zwingli and Calvin 



657 



Christian Religion, a work which set forth in an orderly, 
logical manner the main principles of Protes- j^j^^^ Calvin 
tant theology. Calvin also translated the Bible 1509-1564 
into French and wrote valuable commentaries on 
nearly all the Scriptural books. 

Calvin at Geneva was sometimes called the Protestant pope. 
During his long residence there he governed the people with a 
rod of iron. There were no 
more festivals, no Calvin at 
more theaters, no G-eneva 
more dancing, music, and mas- 
querades. All the citizens had 
to attend two sermons on Sun- 
day and to yield at least a 
Hp-assent to the reformer's doc- 
trines. On a few occasions 
Calvin proceeded to terrible ex- 
tremities, as when he caused the 
Spanish physician, Michael Ser- 
vetus, to be burned to death, 
because of heretical views con- 
cerning the Trinity. Neverthe- 
less, Geneva prospered under Calvin's rule and became a 
Christian commonwealth, sober and industrious. The city 
still reveres the memory of the man who founded her 
university and made her, as it were, the sanctuary of 
the Reformation. 

Calvin's influence was not confined to Geneva or even to 
Switzerland. The men whom he trained and on whom he set 
the stamp of his stern, earnest. God-fearing char- Diffusion of 
acter spread Calvinism over a great part of Europe. Calvinism 
In Holland and Scotland it became the prevailing type of 
Protestantism, and in France and England it deeply affected 
the national life. During the seventeenth century the Puritans 
carried Calvinism across the sea to New England, where it 
formed the dominant faith in colonial times. 




John Calvin 

After an old print 



658 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



233. The English Reformation, 1533-1558 A.D. 

The Reformation in Germany and Switzerland started as a 
national and popular movement; in England it began as the 

act of a despotic sov- 
ereign, Henry VIII. 
Henry VIII, This 

king, 1509- second 
Tudor' 

was handsome, athle- 
tic, finely educated, 
and very able; but 
he was also selfish, 
sensual, and cruel. 
His father had cre- 
ated a strong mon- 
archy in England by 
humbling both Par- 
liament and the 
nobles. When Henry 
VIII came to the 
throne, the only seri- 
ous obstacle in the 
way of royal abso- 
lutism was the Ro- 
man Church. 

Henry showed him- 
self at first a devoted 




Henry YIH 
After a portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger 



Cathohc. 



Henry's 
early 

loyalty to 
the Papacy 



He took an amateur's interest in theology and 
wrote with his own royal pen a book attacking 
Luther. The pope rewarded him with the title 
of ''Defender of the Faith," a title which English 
sovereigns still bear. Henry at this time did not question the 
authority of the Papacy. He even made his chief adviser 
Cardinal Wolsey, the most conspicuous churchman in the 
kingdom. 

1 See page 518. 



The English Reformation 



659 



At the beginning of Henry's reign the Church was still strong 
in England. Probably most of the people were sincerely 
attached to it. Still, the labors of WycUffe and Preparation 
the Lollards had weakened the hold of the Church English 
upon the masses, while Erasmus and the Oxford Reformation 
scholars who worked with him, by their criticism of ecclesiasti- 
cal abuses, had done much to undermine its influence with 
the intellectual classes. In England, as on the Continent, 
the worldliness of the Church prepared the way for the 
Reformation. 

The actual separation from Rome arose out of Henry's 
matrimonial difficulties. He had married a Spanish princess, 
Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of the emperor ji^^y ^nd 
Charles V and widow of Henry's older brother. Catherine 
The marriage required a dispensation ^ from the °^ ^^gon 
pope, because canon law forbade a man to wed his brother's 
widow. After living happily with Catherine for eighteen years, 
Henry suddenly announced his conviction that the union was 
sinful. This, of course, formed simply a pretext for the divorce 
w^hich Henry desired. Of his children by Catherine only a 
daughter survived, but Henry wished to have a son succeed 
him on the throne. Moreover, he had grown tired of Catherine 
and had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a pretty maid-in- 
waiting at the court. 

At first Henry tried to secure the pope's consent to the 

divorce. The pope did not Uke to set aside the dispensation 

granted by his predecessor, nor did he wish to r^^^ 

offend the mighty emperor Charles V. Failing to divorce, 

1533 A D 

get the papal sanction, Henry obtained his 
divorce from an English court presided over by Thomas 
Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury. Anne Boleyn was then 
proclaimed queen, in defiance of the papal bull of excom- 
munication. 

Henry's next step was to procure from his subservient Parlia- 
ment a series of laws which abolished the pope's authority in 
England. Of these, the most important was the Act of 
1 See page 453. 



66o The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



Supremacy, 
1534 A.D. 



Supremacy. It declared the English king to be ''the only 
j^ctof supreme head on earth of the Church of Eng- 

land." At the same time a new treason act 
imposed the death penalty on anyone who called 
the king a ''heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper." 
The great majority of the English people seem to have 
accepted this new legislation without much objection; those 
who refused to do so perished on the scaffold. The most 
eminent victim was Sir Thomas More,^ formerly Henry's Lord 




Ruins of Melrose Abbey 

The little town of Melrose in Scotland contains the ruins of a very beautiful 
monastery church built about the middle of the fifteenth century. The princi- 
pal part of the present remains is the choir, with slender shafts, richly-carved 
capitals, and windows of exquisite stone-tracery. The beautiful sculptures 
throughout the church were defaced at the time of the Reformation. The 
heart of Robert Bruce is interred near the site of the high altar. 



Chancellor and distinguished for eloquence and profound learn- 
ing. His execution sent a thrill of horror through Christendom. 

The suppression of the monasteries soon followed the separa- 
tion from Rome. Henry declared to Parliament that they 
j.^^ deserved to be abolished, because of the "slothful 

monasteries and ungodly lives" led by the inmates. In some 
suppressed instances this accusation may have been true, but 
the real reason for Henry's action was his desire to crush the 
monastic orders, which supported the pope, and to seize their 

1 See page 613. 



The English Reformation 



66i 



extensive possessions. The beautiful monasteries were torn 
down and the lands attached to them were sold for the benefit 
of the crown or granted to Henry's favorites. The nobles who 
accepted this monastic wealth naturally became zealous advo- 
cates of Henry's anti-papal policy. 

Though Henry VIII had broken with the Papacy, he re- 
mained Roman Catholic in doctrine to the day of his death. 
Under his successor, Edward VI, the Reformation -p^^^^^^^ 
made rapid progress in England. The young of the 

king's guardian allowed reformers from the Con- Reformation 

° under 
tinent to come to England, and the doctrines of Edward VI, 

Luther, Zwingh, and Calvin were freely preached 1547-1553 
there. At this time aU paintings, statuary, wood 
carvings, and stained glass were removed from church edifices. 
The use of tapers, incense, and holy water was also discon- 
tinued. In order that religious services might be conducted in 
the language of the people. Archbishop Cranmer and his co- 
w^orkers prepared the Book of Common Prayer. It consisted 
of translations into noble English of various parts of the old 
Latin service books. With some changes, it is still used in the 
Church of England and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the 
United States. 

The short reign of Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of 
Aragon, was marked by a temporary setback to the Protestant 
cause. The queen prevailed on Parliament to Catholic 
secure a reconcihation with Rome. She also reaction 
married her Roman Catholic cousin, Philip of xudor 
Spain, the son of Charles V. Mary now began a 1553-1558 
severe persecution of the Protestants. It gained 
for her the epithet of "Bloody," but it did not succeed in 
stampiag out heresy. Many eminent reformers perished, 
among them Cranmer, the former archbishop. Mary died 
childless, after ruling about five years, and the crown passed to 
Anne Boleyn's daughter, Elizabeth. Under Elizabeth Angli- 
canism again replaced Roman Cathohcism as the rehgion of 
England. 



662 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



234. The Protestant Sects 

The Reformation was practically completed before the close 
of the sixteenth century. In 1500 a.d. the Roman Church 
Extent of embraced all Europe west of Russia and the 
Protestantism Balkan peninsula. By 1575 a.d. nearly hah of 
its former subjects had renounced their allegiance. The 




Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572, a.d. 



greater part of Germany and Switzerland and all of Denmark, 
Norway, Sweden, Holland, England, and Scotland became 
independent of the Papacy. The unity of western Christendom, 
which had been preserved throughout the Middle Ages, thus 
disappeared and has not since been revived. 



The Protestant Sects 



663 



The reformers agreed in substituting for the authority of 
popes and church councils the authority of the Bible. They 
went back fifteen hundred years to the time of the common 
Apostles and tried to restore what they beUeved featvires of 
to be Apostohc Christianity. Hence they rejected Protestantism 
such doctrines and practices as were supposed to have devel- 
oped during the Middle Ages. 
The Reformation also abol- 
ished the monastic system 
and priestly celibacy. The 
sharp distinction between 
clergy and laity disappeared; 
for priests married, Hved 
among the people, and no 
longer formed a separate 
class. In general, Protestant- 
ism affirmed the abihty of 
every man to find salvation 
without the aid of ecclesias- 
tics. The Church was no 
longer the only '^gate of 
heaven." 

But the Protestant idea of 
authority led inevitably to 
differences of Divisions 
opinion among among 
,1 r Protestants 

the reformers. 

There were various ways of 
interpreting that Bible to 
which they appealed as the rule of faith and conduct. Con- 
sequently, Protestantism split up into many sects or denomi- 
nations, and these have gone on multiplying to the present 
day. Nearly all, however, are offshoots from the three main 
varieties of Protestantism which appeared in the sixteenth 
century. 

Lutheranism and Anglicanism presented some features in 
common. Both were state churches, supported by the govern- 




Chaiked Bible 

In the Church of St. Crux, York 



664 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



merit; both had a book of common prayer; and both recog- 
Lutheranism iii^ed the sacraments of baptism, the eucharist, 
and and confirmation. The Church of England also 

AngUcanism -^^^^ ^-^^ sacrament of ordination. The Lutheran 
churches in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as well as the 
Church of England, likewise retained the episcopate. 

Calvinism departed much more widely from Roman Catholi- 
cism. It did away with the episcopate and had only one order 
Calvinism clergy — the presbyters.^ It provided for a 

very simple form of worship. In a Calvinistic 
church the service consisted of Bible reading, a sermon, ex- 
temporaneous prayers, and hymns sung by the congregation. 
The Calvinists kept only two sacraments, baptism and the 
eucharist. They regarded the first, however, as a simple 
undertaking to bring up the child in a Christian manner, and 
the second as merely a commemoration of the Last Supper. 

The break with Rome did not introduce religious liberty into 

Europe. Nothing was further from the minds of Luther, 

^, Calvin, and other reformers than the toleration of 

The . ' . 

Reformation beliefs unlike their own. The early Protestant 
of^^thought"^ sects punished dissenters as zealously as the 
Roman Church punished heretics. Lutherans 
burned the followers of Zwingli in Germany, Calvin put Serve- 
tus to death, and the English government, in the time of 
Henry VIII and Elizabeth, executed many Roman Catholics. 
Complete freedom of conscience and the right of private judg- 
ment in religion have been secured in most European countries 
only within the last hundred years. 

The Reformation, however, did deepen the moral life of 
European peoples. The faithful Protestant or Roman Catholic 
^jjg vied with his neighbor in trying to show that his 

Reformation particular belief made for better living than any 
and morals Q^her. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
in consequence, were more earnest and serious, if also more 
bigoted, than the centuries of the Renaissance. 

1 Churches governed by assemblies of presbyters were called Presbyterian; 
those which allowed each congregation to rule itself were called Congregational. 



The Catholic Counter Reformation 665 



235. The Catholic Counter Reformation 



The 

reforming 
popes 



The rapid spread of Protestantism soon brought about a 
Catholic Counter Reformation in those parts of Europe which 
remained faithful to Rome. The popes now 
turned from the cultivation of Renaissance art 
and literature to the defense of their threatened 
faith. They made needed changes in the papal court and 
appointed to ecclesiastical offices men distinguished for virtue 
and learning. This reform of the Papacy dates from the time 
of Paul III, who became pope in 1534 a.d. He opened the 
college of cardinals to Roman Catholic reformers, even offering 
a seat in it to Erasmus. Still 
more important was his support 
of the famous Society of Jesus, 
which had been estabhshed in 
the year of his accession to the 
papal throne. 

The founder of the new so- 
ciety was a Spanish nobleman, 
Ignatius Loyola. He had seen 

a good deal of ser- „ ^ 

. . , - St. Ignatius 

vice m the wars of Loyola, 

Charles V against 1491-1556 
the French. While 



A.D. 




Ignatius de Loyola 



in a hospital recovering from a 
wound Loyola read devotional 
books, and these produced a profound change within him. 
He now decided to abandon the career of arms and to become, 
instead, the knight of Christ. So Loyola donned a beggar's 
robe, practiced all the kinds of asceticism which his books 
described, and went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The 
turning-point of his career came with his visit to Paris to 
study theology. Here Loyola met the six devout and tal- 
ented men who became the first members of his society. 
They intended to work as missionaries among the Moslems, 
but, when this plan fell through, they visited Rome and 



666 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



placed their energy and enthusiasm at the disposal of 
the pope. 

Loyola's military training deeply affected the character of 
the new order. The Jesuits, as their Protestant opponents 
The Society styled them, were to be an army of spiritual 
of Jesus soldiers, living under the strictest obedience to 
their head, or general. Like soldiers, again, they were to 
remain in the world, and there fight manfully for the Church 
and against heretics. The society grew rapidly; before Loyola's 
death it included over a thousand members; and in the seven- 
teenth century it became the most influential of all the religious 
orders.^ The activity of the Jesuits as preachers, confessors, 
teachers, and missionaries did much to roll back the rising tide 
of Protestantism in Europe. 

The Jesuits gave special attention to education, for they 
realized the importance of winning over the young people to 
Jesuit the Church. Their schools were so good that 

schools even Protestant children often attended them. 

The popularity of Jesuit teachers arose partly from the fact 
that they always tried to lead, not drive their pupils. Light 
punishments, short lessons, many holidays, and a liberal use 
of prizes and other distinctions formed some of the attrac- 
tive features of their system of training. It is not surprising 
that the Jesuits became the instructors of the Roman Catholic 
world. They called their colleges the ''fortresses of the faith." 

The missions of the Jesuits were not less important than their 
schools. The Jesuits worked in Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, 
Jesuit and other countries where Protestantism threat- 

missions become dominant. Then they invaded 

all the lands which the great maritime discoveries of the preced- 
ing age had laid open to European enterprise. In India, 
China, the East Indies, Japan, the Philippines, Africa, and the 
two Americas their converts from heathenism were numbered 
by hundreds of thousands. 

1 In 1773 A.D. the pope suppressed the society, on the ground that it had out- 
grown its usefukiess. It was revived in many European coimtries during the nine- 
teenth century. 



The Catholic Counter Reformation 667 



The most eminent of all Jesuit missionaries, St. Francis 

Xavier, had belonged to Loyola's original band. He was a 

Httle, blue-eyed man, an engaging preacher, an ^ ^ 

. 1 r .St. Francis 

excellent orgamzer, and possessed 01 so attractive Xavier, 

a personahty that even the ruffians and pirates 1506-1552 

with whom he had to associate on his voyages 

became his friends. Xavier labored with such devotion and 

success in the Portuguese colonies of the Far East as to gain 

the title of "Apostle to the Indies." He also introduced 

Christianity in Japan, where it flourished until a persecuting 

emperor extinguished it with fire and sword. 

Another agency in the Counter Reformation was the great 

Church Council summoned by Pope Paul HI. The council 

met at Trent, on the borders of Germany and council of 

Italy. It continued, with intermissions, for nearly Trent, 1545- 

twenty years. The Protestants, though invited ^^^^ 

to participate, did not attend, and hence nothing could be done 

to bring them back within the Roman Catholic fold. This 

was the last general council of the Church for over three hundred 

years. ^ 

The Council of Trent made no essential changes in the 
Roman Cathohc doctrines, which remained as St. Thomas 
Aquinas ^ and other theologians had set them Work of 
forth in the Middle Ages. In opposition to the ^^^^^^ 
Protestant view, it declared that the tradition of the Church 
possessed equal authority with the Bible. It reaffirmed the 
supremacy of the pope over Christendom. The council also 
passed important decrees forbidding the sale of ecclesiastical 
offices and requiring bishops and other prelates to attend 
strictly to their duties. Since the Council of Trent the Roman 
Church has been distinctly a religious organization, instead of 
both a secular and rehgious body, as was the Church in the 
Middle Ages.^ 

The council, before adjourning, authorized the pope to draw 
up a list, or Index, of works which Roman Catholics might not 

1 Until the Vatican Council, held at Ror^e in 1869-1870 a.d. 
* See page 572. 3 See page 440. 



668 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



read. This action did not form an innovation. The Church 
The Index ^^^^ early day had condemned and destroyed 
heretical writings. However, the invention of 
printing, by giving greater currency to new and dangerous 
ideas, increased the necessity for the regulation of thought. 
The "Index of Prohibited Books" still exists, and additions 
to the list are made from time to time. It was matched by 
the strict censorship of printing long maintained in Protestant 
countries. 

Still another agency of the Counter Reformation consisted 
of the Inquisition. This was a system of church courts for the 
The discovery and punishment of heretics. Such 

Inquisition courts had been set up in the Middle Ages, for 
instance, to suppress the Albigensian heresy. After the 
Council of Trent they redoubled their activity, especially in 
Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. 

The Inquisition probably contributed to the disappearance 
of Protestantism in Italy. In the Netherlands, where it worked 
Influence ^^^^ great severity, it only aroused exasperation 
of the and hatred and helped to provoke a successful 

Inquisition ^^^^^^ j^^^^j^ people. The Spaniards, on 

the other hand, approved of the methods of the Inquisition and 
welcomed its extermination of Moors and Jews, as well as 
Protestant heretics. The Spanish Inquisition was not abolished 
till the nineteenth century. 

236. Spain under Philip II, 1556-1598 A.D. 

In 1555 A.D., the year of the Peace of Augsburg,^ Charles V 

determined to abdicate his many crowns and seek the repose of 

a monastery. The plan was duly carried into 
Abdication tt- i i it t it it i 

of Charles effect. His brother rerdmand I succeeded to the 

V, 1555- ^i^Iq Qf Holy Roman Emperor and the Austrian 

1556 A.D. . . , 1 . , . 1 1 

territories, while his son, Philip 11,^ received the 

Spanish possessions in Italy, the Netherlands, and America. 
There were now two branches of the Hapsburg family — one 
in Austria and one in Spain. 

1 See page 656. 2 See page 677. 



Spain under Philip II 



669 



PhiUp n 



The new king of Spain was a man of unflagging energy, 
strong will, and deep attachment to the Roman Church. As 
a ruler he had two great ideals: to make Spain 
the foremost state in the world and to secure the 
triumph of the Roman Catholic faith over Protestantism. His 
efforts to realize these ideals 
largely determined Euro- 
pean history during the 
second hah of the sixteenth 
century. 

The Spanish monarch 
won renown by becoming 
the champion battle of 
of Christen- Lepanto, 

, . ^ 1571 A.D. 

dom against 
the Ottoman Turks. At 
this time the Turks had a 
strong navy, by means of 
which they captured 
Cyprus from the Venetians 
and ravaged Sicily and 
southern Italy. Grave 
danger existed that they 
would soon control all the 
Mediterranean. To stay 
their further progress one 
of the popes preached what 
was really the last crusade. 
The fleets of Genoa and Venice united with those of Spain 
and under Don John of Austria, Philip's half-brother, totally 
defeated the Turkish squadron in the gulf of Lepanto, off the 
western coast of Greece. The battle gave a blow to the sea- 
power of the Turks from which they never recovered and 
ended their aggressive warfare in the Mediterranean. Lepanto 
is one of the proud names in the history of Spain. 

Philip had inherited an extensive realm. He further widened 
it by the annexation of Portugal, thus completing the unification 




Philip 11 

After the portrait by Titian 



670 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



Annexation of 
Portugal, 
1581 A.D. 



of the Spanish peninsula. The Portuguese colonies 
in Africa, Asia, and America also passed into 
Spanish hands. The union of Spain and Portugal 
under one crown never commanded any affection among the 
Portuguese, who were proud of their nationahty and of their 






The Escorial 

This remarkable edifice, at once a convent, a church, a palace, and a royal mausoleum, 
is situated in a sterile and gloomy wilderness about twenty -seven miles from Madrid. It 
was begun by Philip II in 1563 A. D. and was completed twenty-one years later. The 
Escorial is dedicated to St. Lawrence, that saint's day (August 10, 1557) being the day 
when the Spanish king won a great victory over the French at the battle of St. Quentin. 
The huge dimensions of the Escorial may be inferred from the fact that it includes eighty- 
six staircases, eighty -nine fountains, fifteen cloisters. 1,200 doors, 2,600 windows, and miles 
of corridors. The building material is a granite-like stone obtained in the neighborhood. 
The Escorial contains a library of rare books and manuscripts and a collection of valuable 
paintings. In the royal mausoleum under the altar of the church lie the remains of Charles 
V, Philip II, and many of their successors. 



achievements as explorers and empire-builders. Portugal 
separated from Spain in 1640 a.d. and has since remained an 
independent state. 

But the successes of Phihp were more than offset by his 
failures. Though he had vast possessions, enormous revenues, 
Philip's mighty fleets, and armies reputed the best of the 
failures ^^^^ j^g could not dominate western Europe. His 

attempt to conquer England, a stronghold of Protestantism 
under Elizabeth, resulted in disaster. Not less disastrous was 
his life-long struggle with the Netherlands. 



Revolt of the Netherlands 671 



237. Revolt of the Netherlands 

The seventeen provinces of the Netherlands occupied the 
flat, low country along the North Sea — the Holland, Belgium, 
and northern France of the present day. During The 
the fifteenth century they became Hapsburg Netherlands 
possessions and thus belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. 
As we have learned, Charles V received them as a part of his 
inheritance, and he, in turn, transmitted them to Philip II. 

The inhabitants of the Netherlands were not racially united. 
In the southernmost provinces Celtic blood and Romance 
speech prevailed, while farther north dwelt peoples condition 
of Teutonic extraction, who spoke Flemish and of the 
Dutch. Each province likewise kept its own 
government and customs. The prosperity which had marked 
the Flemish cities during the Middle Ages ^ extended in the 
sixteenth century to the Dutch cities also. Rotterdam, Leyden, 
Utrecht, and Amsterdam profited by the geographical discov- 
eries and became centers of extensive commerce with Asia and 
America. The rise of the Dutch power, in a country so exposed 
to destructive inundations of both sea and rivers, is a striking 
instance of what can be accomphshed by a frugal, industrious 
population. 

The Netherlands were too near Germany not to be affected 
by the Reformation. Lutheranism soon appeared there, only 
to encounter the hostility of Charles V, who intro- protestantism 
duced the terrors of the Inquisition. Many heretics in the 
were burned at the stake, or beheaded, or buried ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
ahve. But there is no seed like martyr's blood. The number 
of Protestants swelled, rather than lessened, especially after 
Calvinism entered the Netherlands. As a Jesuit historian re- 
marked, " Nor did the Rhine from Germany or the Meuse from 
France send more water into the Low Countries than by the 
one the contagion of Luther, and by the other that of Calvin, 
were imported into these provinces." 

In spite of the cruel treatment of heretics by Charles V, 

1 See pages 550-551. 



672 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



both Flemish and Dutch remained loyal to the emperor, 
Policy of because he had been born and reared among 
Phihp II them and always considered their country as his 
own. But Philip II, a Spaniard by birth and sympathies, 
seemed to them only a foreign master. The new ruler did 
nothing to conciliate the people. He never visited the Nether- 
lands after 1559 a.d., but governed them despotically through 
Spanish officials supported by Spanish garrisons. Arbitrary 
taxes were levied, cities and nobles were deprived of their 
cherished privileges, and the activity of the Inquisition was 
redoubled. Philip intended to exercise in the Netherlands the 
same absolute power which he enjoyed in Spain. 

The religious persecution which by Philip's orders raged 
through the Netherlands everywhere aroused intense indigna- 
tion. The result was rioting by 
mobs of Protes- 

Alva sent 

to the tants, who wrecked 

?.®JJ®?^^^' churches and mon- 
1567 A.D. 

asteries and carried 
off the treasure they found in 
them. Philip replied to these 
acts by sending his best army, 
under the duke of Alva, his best 
general, to reduce the turbulent 
provinces into submission. 

Alva carried out with thorough- 
ness the policy of his royal 
master. A tribunal, popularly 
known as the "Council of Blood," was set up for the pun- 
Outbreak of ishment of treason and heresy. Hundreds, and 
the revolt probably thousands, perished; tens of thousands 
fled to Germany and England. Alva, as governor-general, 
also raised enormous taxes, which threatened to destroy the 
trade and manufactures of the Netherlands. Under these 
circumstances Roman Catholics and Protestants, nobles and 
townsfolk, united against their Spanish oppressors. A revolt 
began which Spain could never quell. 




William the Silent 



Revolt of the Netherlands 673 



The Netherlands found a leader in William. Prince of Orange, 
later known as Wilham the Silent, because of his customary 
discreetness. He was of German birth, a convert -^^^ ^he 
to Protestantism, and the o^Tier of large estates Silent, 1533- 
in the Netherlands. Wilham had fair abihty as a ^^^^ 
general, a statesmanlike grasp of the situation, and above all a 
stout, courageous heart which never wavered in moments of 
danger and defeat. To rescue the Netherlands from Spain he 

sacrihced his high 

position, his wealth, 
and eventually his 
life. 

The ten southern 
provinces of the 
Netherlands, mainly 
Roman CathoHc in 
po pu- 
lation. 



Separation 
of tlie 

Netherlands 



, ~ ZUYDI 



FRANCE 



■33 
- ^ < 



soon 

effected a reconcil- 
iation with Phihp 
and returned to 
their allegiance. 
They remained in 
Hapsburg hands for 
over two centuries. 
Modern Belgium 
has grown out of 
them. The seven 
northern pro\dnces, 
where Dutch was 

the language and Protestantism the rehgion, formed in 1579 
A.D. the Union of Utrecht. Two years later they declared 
their independence of Spain. Thus the republic of the United 
Netherlands, often known as Holland, the most important of 
the seven pro\dnces, came into being. 

The strusde of the Dutch for freedom forms one of the 



The -Netheelands est the Sixteenth 
Century 



674 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars 



most notable episodes in history. At first they were no match 
Course of for the disciplined Spanish soldiery, but they 
the revolt fought bravely behind the walls of their cities and 
on more than one occasion repelled the enemy by cutting the 
dikes and letting in the sea. Though William the Silent perished 
in a dark hour by an assassin's bullet, the contest continued. 
England now came to the aid of the hard-pressed republic 
with money and a small army. Philip turned upon his new 
antagonist and sent against England the great fleet called the 
''Invincible Armada." Its destruction interfered with further 
attempts to subjugate the Dutch, but the Spanish monarch, stub- 
born to the last, refused to acknowledge their independence. His 
successor, in 1609 a.d., consented to a twelve years' truce with 
the revolted provinces. Their freedom was recognized officially 
by Spain at the close of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 a.d. 

The long struggle bound the Dutch together and made them 
one nation. During the seventeenth century they took a 
The Dutch prominent part in European affairs. The republic 
Repubhc which they founded ought to be of special interest 
to Americans, for many features of our national government 
are Dutch in origin. To Holland we owe the idea of a declara- 
tion of independence, of a written constitution, of religious 
toleration, and of a comprehensive school system supported by 
taxation. In these and other matters the Dutch were pioneers 
of modern democracy. 

238. England under Elizabeth, 1558-1603 A.D. 

Queen Elizabeth, who reigned over England during the 

period of the Dutch revolt, came to the throne when about 

, , twenty-five years old. She was tall and com- 
Elizabeth . 1 1 1 • 1 

mandmg m presence and endowed with great 

physical vigor and endurance. After hunting all day or 

dancing all night she could still attend unremittingly to pubhc 

business. Elizabeth had received an excellent education; she 

spoke Latin and several modern languages; knew a little 

Greek; and displayed some skill in music. To her father, 

Henry VIII, she doubtless owed her tactfulness and charm of 



England under Elizabeth 



675 



manner, as well as her imperious will; she resembled her 
mother, Anne Boleyn, in her vanity and love of display. As a 
ruler Elizabeth was shrewd, far-sighted, a good judge of char- 
acter, and willing to be guided by the able counselors who sur- 
rounded her. Above all, Eliz- 
abeth was an ardent patriot. 
She understood and loved 
her people, and they, in turn, 
felt a chivalrous devotion to 
the ^'Virgin Queen," to 
''Good Queen Bess." 

The daughter of Anne 
Boleyn had been born under 
the ban of the pope, so that 
opposition to Rome was the 
natural course Protestantism 
for her to pursue, in England 
Two acts of Parliament now 
separated England once more 
from the Papacy and gave the 
English Church practically 
the form and doctrines which 
it retains to-day. The church 
was intended to include every- 
one in England, and hence 
all persons were required to attend rehgious exercises on 
Sundays and holy days. Refusal to do so exposed the 
offender to a fine. 

The great body of the people soon conformed to the state 
church, but Roman Catholics could not conscientiously attend 
its services. The laws against them do not seem xj-eatment 
to have been strictly enforced at first, but in the of Roman 
later years of Elizabeth's reign real or suspected 
plots by Roman Catholics against her throne led to a policy 
of repression. Those who said or heard mass were heavily 
fined and imprisoned; those w^ho brought papal bulls into 
England or converted Protestants to Roman Catholicism were 




Elizabeth 



676 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 




executed as traitors. Several hundred priests, mostly Jesuits, 
suffered death, and many more languished in jail. This per- 
secution, however necessary it may have seemed to Elizabeth 
and her advisers, is a blot on her reign. 

The Reformation made httle progress in Ireland. Henry 
VHI, who had extended English sway over most of the island, 
Protestantism suppressed the monasteries, demolished shrines, 
in Ireland relics, and images, and placed Enghsh-speaking 
priests in charge of the churches. The Irish people, who 
remained loyal to Rome, regarded these measures as the tyran- 
nical acts of a for- 
eign government. 
During Eliza- 
beth's reign there 
were several dan- 
gerous revolts, 
which her gen- 
erals suppressed 

Silver Crown or Elizabeth's Reign ^^^^ S^eat cru- 

elty. The result 

was to widen the breach between England and Ireland. 
Henceforth to most Irishmen patriotism became identified 
with Roman Catholicism. 

Many of the plots against EHzabeth centered about Mary 
Stuart, the ill-starred Queen of Scots. She was a grand- 
Elizabeth daughter of Henry VII, and extreme Roman 
Qute^ oT CathoHcs claimed that she had a better right to 
Scots the English throne than Elizabeth, because the 

pope had declared the marriage of Henry VIII and Anne 
Boleyn null and void. Mary, a fervent Roman Catholic, did 
not please her Scotch subjects, who had adopted Calvinistic 
doctrines. She also discredited herself by marrying the man 
who had murdered her former husband. An uprising of the 
Scottish nobles compelled Mary to abdicate the throne in favor 
of her infant son ^ and to take refuge in England. Elizabeth 

1 James VI of Scotland. On Elizabeth's death he became king of England as 
James I. See page 511, note i. 



England under Elizabeth 



677 



kept her rival in captivity for nearly twenty years. In 1586 
A.D., the former queen was found guilty of conspiring against 
Elizabeth's life and was beheaded. 

Phihp II, the king of Spain, also threatened Elizabeth's 
security. At the outset of her reign Phihp had made her an 
offer of marriage, but she refused to give herseh, Elizabeth 
or England, a Spanish master. As time went on, 
Phihp turned into an open enemy of the Protestant queen and 




London Bridge in the Time of Elizabeth 

The old structure was completed early in the thirteenth century. It measured 924 
feet in length and had 20 narrow arches. Note the rows of houses and shops on the 
bridge, the chapel in the center, and the gate above which the heads of traitors were 
exhibited on pikes. The'present London Bridge was completed in 1831 a.d. 



did his best to stir up sedition among her Roman CathoKc 
subjects. It must be admitted that Phihp could plead 
strong justification for his attitude. Elizabeth aUowed the 
Enghsh "sea dogs" ^ to plunder Spanish colonies and seize 
Spanish vessels laden with the treasure of the New World. 
Moreover, she aided the rebeUious Dutch, at first secretly and 
at length openly, in their struggle against Spain. Philip put 
up with these aggressions for many years, but finally came to 
the conclusion that he could never subdue the Netherlands or 



1 See page 639. 



678 The Reformation and the ReKgious Wars 



end the piracy and smuggling in Spanish America without 
first conquering England. The execution of Mary Stuart 
removed his last doubts, for Mary had left him her claims to 
the Enghsh throne. He at once made ready to invade England. 
PhiHp seems to have believed that as soon as a Spanish army 
landed in the island, the Roman Cathohcs would rally to his 
cause. But the Spanish king never had a chance to verify his 
belief; the decisive battle took place on the sea. 




The Spanish Armada in the English Channel 

After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the 
House of Lords. 



Philip had not completed his preparations before Sir Francis 
Drake sailed into Cadiz harbor and destroyed a vast amount 
The of naval stores and shipping. This exploit, which 

Armada"''^^ Drake called "singeing the king of Spain's beard," 
1588 A.D. delayed the expedition for a year. The "invinci- 
ble Armada" ^ set out at last in 1588 a.d. The Spanish vessels, 
though somewhat larger than those of the English, were in- 
ferior in number, speed, and gunnery to their adversaries, 
while the Spanish officers, mostly unused to the sea, were no 

1 Armada was a Spanish name for any armed fleet. 



The Huguenot Wars in France 



679 



match for men like Drake, Frobisher, and Raleigh, the best 
mariners of the age. The Armada suffered severely in a 
nine-days' fight in the Channel, and many vessels which 
escaped the Enghsh guns met shipwreck off the Scotch and 
Irish coasts. Less than half of the Armada returned in 
safety to Spain. 

England in the later Middle Ages had been an important 
naval power, as her abihty to carry on the Hundred Years' 
War in France amply proved. But in the six- EngUsh 
teenth century she was greatly over-matched by sea-power 
Spain, especially after the annexation of Portugal added the 
naval forces of that country to the Spanish fleets. The defeat 
of the Armada not only did great harm to the navy and com- 
merce of Spain; it also showed that a new people had arisen 
to claim the supremacy of the ocean. Henceforth the English 
began to build up what was to be a sea-power greater than any 
other known to history. 



239. The Huguenot Wars in France 

By 1500 A.D. France had become a centralized state under a 
strong monarchy.^ Francis I, who reigned in the first half of 
the sixteenth century, still further exalted the France under 
royal power. He had many wars with Charles V, 1515^1^547 
whose extensive dominions nearly surrounded the A.D. 
French kingdom. These wars prevented the emperor from 
making France a mere dependency of Spain. As we have 
learned,'^ they also interfered with the efforts of Charles V to 
crush the Protestants in Germany. 

Protestantism in France dates from the time of Francis I. 
The Huguenots,^ as the French Protestants were called, naturally 
accepted the doctrines of Calvin, who was himself The 
a Frenchman and whose books were written in the Huguenots 
French language. Though bitterly persecuted by Francis I 
and by his son Henry H (1547-15 59 a.d.), the Huguenots 



1 See page 519. 2 gee page 654. 

3 The origm of the name is not known with certainty. 



68o The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



gained a large following, especially among the prosperous 
middle class of the towns — the bourgeoisie. Many nobles 
also became Huguenots, sometimes because of religious convic- 
tion, but often because the new movement offered them an 
opportunity to recover their feudal independence and to plunder 
the estates of the Church. In France, as well as in Germany, 
the Reformation had its worldly side. 

During most of the second half of the sixteenth century 
fierce conflicts raged in France between the Roman Catholics 
Civil war and the Huguenots. Philip II aided the former 
in France ^ind Queen Elizabeth gave some assistance to the 
latter. France suffered terribly in the struggle, not only from 
the constant fighting, which cost the lives, it is said, of more 
than a million people, but also from the pillage, burnings, 
and other barbarities in which both sides indulged. The 
wealth and prosperity of the country visibly declined, and 
all patriotic feeling disappeared in the hatreds engendered 
by a civil war. 

The episode known as the massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
Day illustrates the extremes to which political ambition and 
Massacre religious bigotry could lead. The massacre was 
Bar^holo attempt to extirpate the Huguenots, root and 

mew's Day, branch, at a time when peace prevailed between 
1572 A.D. them and their opponents. The person primarily 
responsible for it was Catherine de' Medici, mother of Charles 
IX (i 560-1 574 A.D.), the youthful king of France. Charles 
had begun to cast off the sway of his mother and to come under 
the influence of Admiral de Coligny, the most eminent of the 
Huguenots. To regain her power Catherine first tried to have 
Coligny murdered. When the plot failed, she invented the 
story of a great Huguenot uprising and induced her weak- 
minded son to authorize a wholesale butchery of Huguenots. 
It began in Paris in the early morning of August 24, 1572 
A.D.,1 and extended to the provinces, where it continued for 
several weeks. Probably ten thousand Huguenots were slain, 
including Coligny himself. But the deed was a blunder as 

1 St. Bartholomew's Day. 



The Huguenot Wars in France 



well as a crime. The Huguenots took up arms to defend 
themselves, and France again experienced aU the horrors of 
internecine strife. 

The death of Cohgny transferred the leadership of the Hugue- 
nots to Henry Bourbon, king of Navarre.^ Seventeen years 

after the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, he _ 

Henry IV 

inherited the French crown as Henry IV. The 
Roman Catholics would not accept a Protestant ruler and 
continued the conflict. Henry soon realized that only his con- 
version to the faith of the majority of his subjects would bring 
a lasting peace. Rehgious opinions had always sat hghtly 
upon him, and he found no great' difficulty in becoming a 
Roman Cathohc. "Paris," said Henry, "was weU worth a 
mass." Opposition to the king soon collapsed, and the 
Huguenot wars came to an end. 

Though now a Roman Cathohc, Henry did not break with 
the Huguenots. In 1598 a.d. he issued in their interest the 
celebrated Edict of Nantes. By its terms the ^^jj^.^ 
Huguenots were to enjoy freedom of private wor- Nantes, 
ship everywhere in France, and freedom to worship ^^^^ 
pubhcly in a large number of villages and towns. Only Roman 
Cathohc services, however, might be held in Paris and at the 
royal court. Though the edict did not grant complete rehgious 
hberty, it marked an important step in that direction. A 
great European state now for the first time recognized the 
principle that two rival faiths might exist side by side within 
its borders. The edict was thus the most important act of 
toleration since the age of Constantine.^ 

Having settled the religious difficulties, Henry could take up 
the work of restoring prosperity to distracted France under 
France. His interest in the welfare of his subjects ^89^^6^io 
gained for him the name of "Good King Henry." A.D. 
With the help of Sully, his chief minister, the king reformed 

1 Navarre originally formed a small kingdom on both sides of the Pyrenees. 
The part south of these mountains was acquired by Spain in 15 13 a.d. See the 
map on page 521. 

2 See page 235. 



682 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars 



the finances and extinguished the pubhc debt. He opened 
roads, built bridges, and dug canals, thus aiding the restoration 

of agriculture. He also encour- 
aged commerce by means of 
royal bounties for shipbuilding. 
The French at this time began 
to have a navy and to compete 
with the Dutch and Enghsh 
for trade on the high seas. 
Henry's work of renovation was 
cut short in 1610 a.d. by an 
assassin's dagger. Under his 
son Louis XHI (1610-1643 a.d.), 
a long period of disorder fol- 
lowed, until an able minister, 
Cardinal Richelieu, assumed the 
guidance of public affairs. 
Richelieu for many years was 
the real ruler of France. His 
foreign policy led to the inter- 
vention of that country in the 
international conflict known as the Thirty Years' War. 




Cardinal Richelieu 

National Gallery, London 

After the portrait by the Belgian artist, 
Philippe de Champaigne. 



240. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 A.D. 

The Peace of Augsburg ^ gave repose to Germany for more 
than sixty years, but it did not form a complete settlement of 
Religious the religious question in that country. There 
antagonisms ^^[\\ j-Qom for bitter disputes, especially over 

the ownership of Church property which had been secularized 
in the course of the Reformation. Furthermore, the peace 
recognized only Roman Catholics and Lutherans and gave no 
rights whatever to the large body of Calvinists. The failure 
of Lutherans and Calvinists to cooperate weakened German 
Protestantism just at the period when the Counter Reformation 
inspired Roman CathoHcism with fresh energy and enthusiasm. 

Pohtics, as well as rehgion, also helped to bring about the 

1 See page 656. 



The Thirty Years' War 



683 



great conflagration. The Roman Catholic party rehed for 
support on the Hapsburg emperors, who wished Political 
to miite the German states under their control, friction 
thus restoring the Holy Roman Empire to its former proud 
position in the affairs of Europe. The Protestant princes, on 
the other hand, wanted to become independent sovereigns. 
Hence they resented all efforts to extend the imperial authority 
over them. 

The Thirty Years' War was not so much a single conflict as a 
series of conflicts, which ultimately involved nearly all western 
Europe. It began in Bohemia, where Protestant- ^j^^ 
ism had not been extinguished by the Hussite Bohemian 
wars.^ The Bohemian nobles, many of whom 
were Calvinists, revolted against Hapsburg rule and proclaimed 
the independence of Bohemia. The German Lutherans gave 
them no aid, however, and the emperor, Ferdinand II, easily 
put down the insurrection. Many thousands of Protestants 
were now driven into exile. Those who remained in Bohemia 
were obHged to accept Roman CathoUcism. Thus one more 
country was lost to Protestantism. 

The failure of the Bohemian revolt aroused the greatest alarm 
in Germany. Ferdinand threatened to follow in the footsteps 
of Charles V and to crush Protestantism in the land Danish 
of its birth. When, therefore, the king of Den- mtervention 
mark, who as duke of Holstein had great interest in German 
affairs, decided to intervene, both Lutherans and Calvinists 
supported him. But Wallenstein, the emperor's able general, 
proved more than a match for the Danish king, who at length 
withdrew from the contest. 

So far the Roman CathoHc and imperial party had triumphed. 
Ferdinand's success led him to issue the Edict of Restitution, 
which compelled the Protestants to restore aU -^^^^^ 
the Church property which they had taken since Restitution, 
the Peace of Augsburg. The enforcement of the 
edict brought about renewed resistance on the part of the 
Protestants. 

^ See page 650. 



684 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



There now appeared the single heroic figure on the stage of 
the Thirty Years' War. This was Gustavus Adolphus, king of 
Gustavus Sweden, and a man of military genius. He had 
and^the^ the deepest sympathy for his fellow-Protestants 
intervention in Germany and regarded himself as their divinely 
of Sweden appointed deliverer. By taking part in the war 
Gustavus also hoped to conquer the coast of northern Germany. 

The Baltic would then become a 
Swedish lake, for Sweden already 
possessed Finland and what are 
now the Russian provinces on the 
Baltic. 

Gustavus entered Germany with 
a strong force of disciplined soldiers 
Gustavus and tried to form alli- 
Adolphus in aj^cgs ^ith .the Prot- 
Germany, 

1630-1632 estant princes. They 
received him coolly at 
first, for the Swedish king seemed to 
them only a foreign invader. Just 
at this time the imperialists captured 
Magdeburg, the largest and most 
prosperous city in northern Germany. 
At least twenty thousand of the inhabitants perished miserably 
amid the smoking ruins of their homes. This massacre turned 
Protestant sentiment toward Gustavus as the "Lion of the 
North" who had come to preserve Germany from destruction. 
With the help of his allies Gustavus reconquered most of 
Germany for the Protestants, but he fell at the battle of 
Liitzen in the moment of victory. His work, however, was 
done. The Swedish king had saved the cause of Protestantism 
in Germany. 

After the death of Gustavus the war assumed more and 
Richelieu more a political character. The German Protes- 
Stervention tants found an ally, strangely enough, in Cardinal 
of France Richelieu, the all-powerful minister of the French 
king. Richelieu entered the struggle in order to humble the 




Gustavus Adolphus 



After the portrait by the Flemish 
artist, Sir Anthony Van Dyck. 



The Thirty Years' War 



68s 



Austrian Hapsburgs and extend the boundaries of France 
toward the Rhine, at the expense of the Holy Roman Empire. 
Since the Spanish Hapsburgs were aiding their Austrian kins- 
men, Richeheu naturally fought against Spain also. The war 
thus became a great international conflict in which religion 
played only a minor part. The Holy Roman Emperor had to 
yield at last and consented to the treaties of peace signed at 
two cities in the province of Westphalia. 

The Peace of Westphalia ended the long series of wars which 
followed the Reformation. It practically settled the religious 
question, for it allowed Calvinists in Germany to peace of 
enjoy the same privileges as Lutherans and also Westphalia, 
withdrew the Edict of Restitution. Nothing was 
said in the treaties about liberty of conscience, but from this 
time the idea that religious differences should be settled by 
force gradually passed away from the minds of men. 

The political clauses of the peace were numerous. France 
received nearly all of Alsace along the Rhine. Sweden gained 
possessions in North Germany. Brandenburg — Territorial 
the future kingdom of Prussia — secured additional readjust- 
territory on the Baltic Sea. The independence of 
Switzerland ^ and of the United Netherlands ^ was also recognized. 

The Peace of Westphalia left Germany more divided than 
ever. Each one of the larger states was free to coin money, 
raise armies, make war, and negotiate treaties Disruption of 
without consulting the emperor. In fact, the Germany 
Holy Roman Empire had become a mere phantom. The 
Hapsburgs from now on devoted themselves to their Austrian 
dominions, which included more Magyars and Slavs than 
Germans. The failure of the Hapsburgs in the Thirty Years' 
War long postponed the unification of Germany. 

During the Thirty Years' War Germany had seen most of 
the fighting. She suffered from it to the point of exhaustion. 
The population dwindled from about sixteen Exhaustion 
million to one-half, or, as some beheve, to one- Germany 
third that number. The loss of life was partly due to the 

1 See page 524, note i. 2 See page 673. 



686 The Reformation and the Religious Wars 



fearful epidemics, such as typhus fever and the bubonic plague, 
which spread over the land in the wake of the invading armies. 
Hundreds of villages were destroyed or were abandoned by 
their inhabitants. Much of the soil went out of cultivation, 
while trade and manufacturing nearly disappeared. Added to 
all this was the decline of education, hterature, and art, and the 
brutalizing of the people in mind and morals. It took Germany 
at least one hundred years to recover from the injury inflicted 
by the Thirty Years' War; complete recovery, indeed, came 
only in the nineteenth century. 

The savagery displayed by all participants in the Thirty 
Years' War could not but impress thinking men with the 
Rise of necessity of formulating rules to protect non- 

international combatants, to care for prisoners, and to do away 
with pillage and massacre. The worst horrors of 
the war had not taken place, before a Dutch jurist, named 
Hugo Grotius, published at Paris in 1625 a.d. a work 07i the 
Laws of War and Peace. It may be said to have founded 
international law. The success of the book was remarkable. 
Gustavus Adolphus carried a copy about with him during 
his campaigns, and its leading doctrines were recognized and 
acted upon in the Peace of Westphalia. 

The great principle on which Grotius based his recommenda- 
tions was the independence of sovereign states. He gave up 
The Euro- medieval conception of a temporal and spiritual 

pean state head of Christendom. The nations now recog- 
system nized no common superior, whether emperor or 

pope, but all were equal in the sight of international law. The 
book of Grotius thus marked the profound change which had 
come over Europe since the Middle Ages. 

Studies 

I. On an outline map indicate the European countries ruled by Charles V. 
2. On an outline map indicate the principal territorial changes made by the Peace 
of Westphalia. 3. Identify the following dates: 1648 a.d.; 1519 a.d.; 1517 a.d.; 
1588 A.D.; 1598 a.d.; and 1555 a.d. 4. Locate the following places: Avignon; 
Constance; Augsburg; Zurich; Worms; Magdeburg; and Utrecht. 5. For what 
were the following persons noted: Cardinal Wolsey; Admiral de Coligny; Duke of 
Alva; Richelieu; St. Ignatius Loyola; Boniface VIII; Frederick the Wise; Gustavus 



The Thirty Years' War 



687 



Adolphus; and Mary Queen of Scots? 6. Compare the scene at Anagni with the 
scene at Canossa. 7. On the map, page 646, trace the geographical extent of the 
"Great Schism." 8. Name three important reasons for the lessened influence of 
the Roman Church at the opening of the sixteenth century. 9. Explain the differ- 
ence between heresy and schism. 10. Why has Wycliffe been called the "morning 
star of the Reformation"? 11. Compare Luther's work in fixing the form of the 
German language with Dante's service to Itahan through the Divine Comedy. 
12. What is the origin of the name "Protestant"? 13. Why was Mary naturally a 
Catholic and Elizabeth naturally a Protestant? 14. On the map, page 662, trace 
the geographical extent of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. 15. Why 
did the reformers in each country take special pains to translate the Bible into the 
vernacular? 16. What is the chief difference in mode of government between 
Presbyterian and Congregational churches? 17. "The heroes of the Reformation, 
judged by modem standards, were reactionaries." What does this statement 
mean? 18. Why is the Council of Trent generally considered the most important 
church coimcil since that of Nicaea? 19. Mention some differences between the 
Society of Jesus and earher monastic orders. 20. Compare the Edict of Nantes 
with the Peace of Augsburg. 21. Show how political, as well as rehgious, motives 
affected the revolt of the Netherlands, the Huguenot wars, and the Thirty Years' 
War. 22. Compare the effects of the Thirty Years' War on Germany with the 
effects of the Hvmdred Years' War on France. 23. What would you say of Hol- 
bein's success as a portrait painter (illustrations, pages 651, 658)? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 



ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 
1603-1715 A.D. 

241. The Divine Right of Kings 

Most European nations in the seventeenth and eighteenth 

centuries accepted the principle of absolutism in government. 

Absolutism was as popular then as democracy is 
Absolutism o • 1 

to-day. The rulers of r ranee, Spam, Portugal, 

Austria, Scandinavia, and other countries, having triumphed 

over the feudal nobles, proceeded to revive the autocratic 

traditions of imperial Rome. Like Diocletian, Constantine, 

and later emperors, they posed as absolute sovereigns, who 

held their power, not from the choice or consent of their 

subjects, but from God. 

Royal absolutism formed a natural development of the old 

behef in the divinity of kings. Many primitive peoples regard 

Divinity of their headmen and chiefs as holy and give to them 

kings control of peace and war, of life and death. 

Oriental rulers in antiquity bore a sacred character. Even in 

the lifetime of an Egyptian Pharaoh temples were erected to 

him and offerings were made to his sacred majesty. The 

Hebrew monarch was the Lord's anointed, and his person 

was holy. The Hellenistic kings of the East and the Roman 

emperors received divine honors from their adoring subjects. 

An element of sanctity also attached to medieval sovereigns, 

who, at their coronation, were anointed with a magic oil, girt 

with a sacred sword, and given a supernatural banner. Even 

^ Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxv, "Charac- 
ters and Episodes of the Great Rebellion"; chapter xxvi, "Oliver Cromwell"; 
chapter xxvii, "English Life and Manners under the Restoration"; chapter 
xxviii, "Louis XIV and his Court." 

688 



The Absolutism of Louis XIV 689 



Shakespeare could speak of the divinity which ''doth hedge a 
king."i 

"Not all the water in the rough rude sea 
Can wash the balm off from an anointed king; 
The breath of worldly men cannot depose 
The deputy elected by the Lord." 2 

The Reformation tended to emphasize the sacred character 
of kingship. The reformers set up the authority of the State 
against the authority of the Church, which they Divine right 
rejected and condemned. Providence, they ar- after the Ref- 
gued, had never sanctioned the Papacy, but Prov- 
idence had reaUy ordained the State and had placed over it 
a king whom it was a reUgious duty to obey. Even those who 
were not reformers distorted the Christian idea that govern- 
ment has a divine basis to represent kings as God's vicegerents 
upon earth, as in fact earthly deities. 

The theory of divine right received its fullest expression in 
a famous book^ written by Bossuet, a learned French bishop 
of the seventeenth century. A hereditary mon- Bossuet on 
archy, declared Bossuet, is the most ancient and divine right 
natural, the strongest and most efficient, of all forms of govern- 
ment. Royal power emanates from God; hence the person of 
the king is sacred and it is sacrilege to conspire against him. 
His authority is absolute and autocratic. No man may right- 
fully resist the king's commands; his subjects owe him obedi- 
ence in all matters. To the violence of a king the people can 
oppose only respectful remonstrances and prayers for his con- 
version. A king, to be sure, ought not to be a tyrant, but he 
can be one in perfect security. "As in God are united all per- 
fection and every virtue, so all the power of all the individuals 
in a community is united in the person of the king." 

242. The Absolutism of Louis XIV, 1661-1715 A.D. 

France in the seventeenth century furnished the best ex- 
ample of an absolute monarchy supported by pretensions to 

1 Hamlet, iv, v, 123. 2 King Richard the Second, in, ii, 54-57- 
3 Politics as derived from the Very Words of the Holy Scriptures. This work was 
prepared for the use of the young son of Louis XIV, the French king. 



690 



Absolutism in France and England 



divine right. French absolutism owed most of all to Cardinal 
RicheUeu/ the chief minister of Louis XIII. Though a man 
Cardinal of poor physique and in weak health, he pos- 
Richelieu sessed such strength of will, together with such 
thorough understanding of poHtics, that he was able to domi- 
nate the king and through 
the king to govern France 
for eighteen years (1624- 
1642 A.D.). 

Richelieu's foreign 
policy led to his interven- 
tion on the side of the 
Protestants at a decisive 
moment in the Thirty 
Policies of Years' War. 
RicheUeu xhe great 
cardinal, however, did 
not live to see the tri- 
umph of his measures in 
the Peace of Westphalia, 
which humiliated the 
Hapsburgs and raised 
France to the first place 
among the states of western Europe. Richelieu's domestic 
policy — to make the French king supreme — was equally suc- 
cessful. Though the nobles were still rich and influential, 
Richelieu beat down their opposition by forbidding the practice 
of duelling, that last remnant of private warfare, by ordering 
many castles to be blown up with gunpowder, and by bringing 
rebellious dukes and counts to the scaffold. Henceforth the 
nobles were no longer feudal lords but only courtiers. 

Richelieu died in 1642 a.d., and the next year Louis XIII, 
the master whom he had served so faithfully, also passed away. 
Cardinal The new ruler, Louis XIV, was only a child, and 
Mazarin ^-j^g management of affairs for a second period of 
eighteen years passed into the hands of Cardinal Mazarin. 

^ See pages 682, 684. 




Cardinal Mazarin 

A miniature by Petitot, in the South Kensington 
Museum, London. 



The Absolutism of Louis XIV 691 




Loms XIV 

A portrait by J. Gale, in the Sutherland Collection, London. 

Though an ItaHan by birth, he became a naturalized French- 
man and carried out Richelieu's policies. Against the Haps- 
burgs Mazarin continued the great war which Richeheu had 
begun and brought it to a satisfactory conclusion. The Peace 
of Westphalia was Mazarin's greatest triumph. He also crushed 
a formidable uprising against the crown, on the part of discon- 
tented nobles. Having achieved all this, the cardinal could 



692 Absolutism in France and England 



truly say that "if his language was not French, his heart was." 
His death in 1661 a.d. found the royal authority more firmly 
established than ever before. 

Louis XIV, who now in his twenty-third year took up the 
reins of government, ranks among the ablest of French mon- 
Louis XIV, archs. He was a man of handsome presence, 
the man slightly below the middle height, with a prominent 
nose and abundant hair, which he allowed to fall over his 
shoulders. In manner he was dignified, reserved, courteous, 
and as majestic, it is said, in his dressing-gown as in his robes 
of state. A contemporary wrote that he would have been every 
inch a king, "even if he had been born under the roof of a 
beggar." Louis possessed much natural intelligence, a reten- 
tive memory, and great capacity for work. It must be added, 
however, that his general education had been much neglected, 
and that throughout his life he remained ignorant and supersti- 
tious. Vanity formed a striking trait in the character of Louis. 
He accepted the most fulsome compliments and delighted to be 
known as the "Grand Monarch" and the "Sun-king." 

Louis gathered around him a magnificent court, which he 
located at Versailles, near Paris. Here a whole royal city, with 
Court of palaces, parks, groves, and fountains, sprang into 
Louis XIV at being at his fiat. Here the "Grand Monarch" 
Versailles lived surrounded by crowds of fawning courtiers. 
The French nobles now spent little time on their country 
estates; they preferred to remain at Versailles in attendance 
on the king, to whose favor they owed offices, pensions, and 
honors. The king's countenance, it was said, is the courtier's 
supreme felicity; "he passes his life looking on it and within 
sight of it." 

Louis taught and put into practice the doctrine of divine 
right. In his memoirs he declares that the king is God's repre- 
Louis XIV, sentative and for his actions is answerable to God 
the king alone. The famous saying, "I am the State,i 
though not uttered by Louis, accurately expressed his con- 
viction that in him was embodied the power and greatness of 

1 ^^VEtat, c'est moi." 



The Absolutism of Louis XIV 693 




I The view shows the rear of the palace, a part of the gardens, and the grand stairway 
leading to the Fountain of Latona. The palace now forms a magnificent picture gallery 
of French historical scenes and personages, while the park, with its many fine fountains, 
is a place of holiday resort for Parisians. It is estimated that Louis XIV spent one hundred 
million dollars on the buildings and grounds of Versailles. 



694 



Absolutism in France and England 



France. Few monarchs have tried harder to justify their 
despotic rule. He was fond of gaiety and sport, but he never 
permitted himself to be turned away from the punctual dis- 
charge of his royal duties. Until the close of his reign — the 
longest in the annals of Europe — Louis devoted from five to 
nine hours a day to what he called the "trade of a king." 

Conditions in France made possible the despotism of Louis. 
Richelieu and Mazarin had labored with great success to 
Absolutism strengthen the crown at the expense of the nobles 
in France commons. The nation had no Parliament 

to represent it and voice its demands, for the Estates-General ^ 
had not been summoned since 1614 a.d. It did not meet again 
till 1789 A.D., just before the outbreak of the French Revolu- 
tion. In France there was no Magna Carta to protect the 
liberties of the people by limiting the right of a ruler to impose 
taxes at will. The French, furthermore, lacked independent 
law courts which could interfere with the king's power of 
exiling, imprisoning, or executing his subjects. Thus absolute 
monarchy became so firmly rooted in France that a revolution 
was necessary to overthrow it. 

243. France under Louis XIV 

No absolute ruler, however conscientious and painstaking, 
can shoulder the entire burden of government. Louis XIV 
Colbert necessarily had to rely very much on his ministers, 

of whom Colbert was the most eminent. Colbert, 
until his death in 1683 a.d., gave France the best administra- 
tion it had ever known. His reforming hand was especially 
felt in the finances. He made many improvements in the 
methods of tax-collection and turned the annual deficit in the 
revenues into a surplus. One of Colbert's innovations, now 
adopted by all European states, was the budget system. Be- 
fore his time expenditures had been made at random, without 
consulting the treasury receipts. Colbert drew up careful 
estimates, one year in advance, of the probable revenues and 
expenditures, so that outlay would never exceed income. 

1 See pages 514, 515. 



France under Louis XIV 



695 



Colbert's 
economic 
measures 




Although the science of economics or political economy was 
little developed in the seventeenth century, Colbert reahzed 
that the chief object of a minister of finance should 
be the increase of the national wealth. Hence he 
tried in every way to foster manufactures and 
commerce. Among other measures Colbert placed heavy 
duties on the importation of foreign products, as a means of 
protecting the "infant industries" of France. This was the 
inauguration of 
the protective 
system, since 
followed by 
many European 
countries and 
from Europe 
introduced into 
America. Col- 
bert regarded 
protectionism as 
only a tempo- 
rary device, however, and spoke of tariffs as crutches by the 
help of which manufacturers might learn to walk and then 
throw them away. 

Colbert shared the erroneous views of most economists of 
his age in supposing that the wealth of a country is measured 
by the amount of gold and silver which it possesses, colbert and 
He wished, therefore, to provide the French with colonial 
colonies, where they could obtain the products 
which they had previously been obliged to purchase from the 
Spaniards, Dutch, and English. At this time many islands in 
the West Indies were acquired, Canada was developed, and 
Louisiana, the vast territory drained by the Mississippi, was 
opened up to settlement. France, under Colbert, became one 
of the leading colonial powers of Europe. 

As long as Colbert hved, he kept on good terms with the 
Huguenots, who formed such useful and industrious subjects. 
But Louis hated them as heretics and suspected them of httle 



Medal of Louis XIV 

Commemorates the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The 
obverse bears a representation of "Louis the Great, the Most Chris- 
tian King," the reverse contains a legend meaning "Heresy Ex- 
tinguished." 



696 



Absolutism in France and England 



love for absolute monarchy. To Louis religious unity in the 
state seemed as necessary as political unity. Accordingly, he 
Revocation revoked in 1685 a.d. the Edict of Nantes/ after 
of Naiites?* French for almost a century had enjoyed reli- 

1685 A.D. gious toleration. The Huguenots were allowed to 
keep their Protestant faith, but their freedom of worship was 
taken away and was not restored till the time of the French 
Revolution. The Protestants in France to-day are about as 
numerous, in proportion to the Roman Catholic population, 
as they were under Louis XIV. 

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes resulted in a consider- 
able emigration of Huguenots from France. What was a loss 
Emigration ^^^^ Country was a gain to England and Hol- 

of the land, where the Huguenots settled and where they 

Huguenots introduced their arts and trades. Prussia, also, 
profited by the emigration of the Huguenots. Many of them 
went to Berlin, and that capital owed the beginning of its 
importance to its Huguenot population. Louis by his bigotry 
thus strengthened the chief Protestant foes of France. 

Louis was a generous patron of art. French painters and 
sculptors led the world at this time. One of his architects, 
Art under Mansard, invented the mansard roof, which has 
Louis XIV heen largely used in France and other European 
countries. This architectural device makes it possible to 
provide extra rooms at a small expense, without adding an 
additional story to the building. Among the monuments of 
Louis's reign are the Hotel des Invalides,^ now the tomb of 
Napoleon, additions to the Louvre,^ perhaps the masterpiece 
of all modern architecture, and the huge palace of Versailles. 
Louis also founded the Gobehns manufactory, so celebrated 
for fine carpets, furniture, and metal work. 

The long hst of French authors who flourished during the 
Literature reign of Louis includes Moliere, the greatest of 
under Louis Franch dramatists, La Fontaine, whose fables are 
still popular, Perrault, now remembered for his 
fairy tales, and Madame de Sevigne, whose letters are regarded 

1 See page 681. 2 See page 597, note 4. ^ See page 6oi. 



The Wars of Louis XIV 



697 



as models of French prose. Probably the most famous work 

composed at this time is the Memoirs of Saint-Simon. It 

presents an intimate and not very flattering picture of the 

"Grand Monarch" and his court. 

Louis and his ministers beheved that the government should 

encourage research and the diffusion of knowledge. RicheHeu 

founded and Colbert fostered the French Academy. Learning 

Its forty members, sometimes called the "Im- under Louis 

XIV 

mortals," are chosen for their eminent contribu- 
tions to language and Hterature. The great dictionary of the 
French language, on which they have labored for more than 
two centuries, is stiU unfinished. The academy now forms a 
section of the Institute of France. The patronage of Colbert 
also did much to enrich the National Library at Paris. It 
contains the largest collection of books in the world. 

The brilliant reign of the French king cast its spell upon the 
rest of Europe. Kings and princes looked to Louis as the 
model of what a king should be and set themselves The age of 
to imitate the splendor of his court. During this ^^^^ XIV 
period the French language, manners, dress, art, literature, 
and science became the accepted standards of good society in 
all civilized lands. France still retains in large measure the 
preeminent position which she secured under the "Grand 
Monarch." 

244. The Wars of Louis XIV 

How unwise it may be to concentrate all authority in the 
hands of one man is shown by the melancholy record of the 
wars of Louis XIV. To aggrandize France and Ambitious 
gain fame for himself, Louis plunged his country designs of 
into a series of struggles from which it emerged 
completely exhausted. Like Philip II, Louis dreamed of domi- 
nating all western Europe, but, as in Philip's case, his aggres- 
sions provoked against him a constantly increasing body of 
allies, who in the end proved too strong even for the king's 
able generals and fine armies. 

The union of the smaller and weaker countries of Europe 



698 



Absolutism in France and England 



against France illustrates the principle of the balance of power. 
The balance According to this principle no state ought to 
of power become so strong as to overshadow the rest. In 
such a case all the others must combine against it and treat it 
as a common enemy. The maintenance of the balance of power 
has been a leading object of European diplomacy from the 
time of the Thirty Years' War to the present day. 

Louis himself lacked military talent and did not take a 
prominent part in any campaign. He was served, however, 
French by very able commanders, including Conde and 

mUitarism Turenne. Vauban, an eminent engineer, especi- 
ally developed the art of siege craft. It was said of Vauban 
that he never besieged a fortress without taking it and never 
lost one which he defended. Louvois, the war minister of the 
king, recruited, equipped, and provisioned larger bodies of 
troops than ever before had appeared on European battle- 
fields. It was Louvois who introduced the use of distinctive 
uniforms for soldiers and the custom of marching in step. He 
also estabhshed field hospitals and ambulances and placed 
camp life on a sanitary basis. The labors of these men gave 
Louis the best standing army of the age. 

Of the four great wars which filled a large part of Louis's 
reign, all but the last were designed to extend the dominions of 
The Rhine France on the east and northeast to the Rhine, 
boundary That river in ancient times had separated Gaul 
and Germany, and Louis, as well as Richelieu and Mazarin 
before him, regarded it as a natural boundary of France. A 
beginning in this direction had already been made at the close 
of the Thirty Years' War, when France gained nearly all of 
Alsace and secured the recognition of her old claims to the 
bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine. A treaty 
which Mazarin negotiated with Spain in 1659 a.d. also gave 
France most of Artois, as well as part of Flanders. Louis thus 
had a good basis of further advance through Lorraine and the 
Netherlands to the Rhine. 

The French king began his aggressions by an effort to annex 
the Belgian or Spanish Netherlands, which then belonged to 



The Wars of Louis XIV 



699 



Spain. ^ A triple alliance of Holland, England, and Sweden 
forced him to reUnquish all his conquests, except Two wars 
a few frontier towns (1668 a.d.). Louis blamed R^n^e^ i667- 
the Dutch for his setback, and determined to 1678 A.D. 
punish them. JMor cover, the Dutch represented everything 




Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV 



to which he was opposed, for Holland was a republic, the keen 
rival of France in trade, and Protestant in religion. By skillful 
diplomacy he persuaded England and Sweden to stand aloof, 
while his armies entered Holland and drew near to Amsterdam 

1 See page 673. 



700 Absolutism in France and England 



At this critical moment William, Prince of Orange, became 
the -Dutch leader. He was a descendant of that William the 
Silent, who, a century before, had saved the Dutch out of the 
hands of Spain. When urged to submit, seeing that his coun- 
try was surely lost, William rephed, "I know one way of never 
seeing it, and that way is to die on the last dike." By William's 
orders the Dutch cut the dikes and interposed a watery barrier 
to further advance by the French. Then he formed another 
Continental coalition, which carried on the war till Louis sig- 
nified his desire for peace. The Dutch did not lose a foot of 
territory, but Spain was obliged to cede to France the impor- 
tant province of Franche Comte (1678 a.d.). 

Ten years later Louis again sought to gain additional terri- 
tory along the Rhine, but again an alliance of Spain, Holland, 
A third war England, and the Holy Roman Empire compelled 
1689-1697 him to sue for peace (1697 a.d.).^ During the 
course of the war the French inflicted a frightful 
devastation on the Rhenish Palatinate, so that it might not 
support armies for the invasion of France. Twelve hundred 
towns and villages were destroyed, and the countryside was 
laid waste. The responsibility for this barbarous act rests 
upon Louvois who advised it and Louis who allowed it. 

Thus far the European balance of power had been preserved, 
but it was now threatened in another direction. Charles II, 
The Spanish the king of Spain, lay dying, and as he was with- 
succession children or brothers to succeed him, all Europe 

wondered what would be the fate of his vast possessions in 
Europe and America. Louis had married one of his sisters, 
and the Holy Roman Emperor another, so both the Bourbons 
and the Austrian Hapsburgs could put forth claims to the 
Spanish throne. When Charles died, it was found that he had 
left his entire dominions to Philip of Anjou, one of Louis's 
grandsons, in the hope that the power of France might be great 
enough to keep them undivided. Though Louis knew that 
acceptance of the inheritance would involve a war with Austria 
and probably with England, whose king was now Louis's old 

^ In America the war was known as " King William's War." 



The Wars of Louis XIV 701 



foe, William of Orange,^ ambition triumphed over fear and 
the desire for glory over consideration for the welfare of France. 
At Versailles Louis proudly presented his grandson to the court, 
saying, "Gentlemen, behold the king of Spain." 

In the War of the Spanish Succession France and Spain faced 
the Grand Alhance, which included England, Holland, Austria, 
several of the German states, and Portugal, war of the^ 
Europe had never known a war that concerned so Spanish 
many countries and peoples. The EngHsh ruler, 1702-1713 ' 
WiUiam III, died shortly after the outbreak of 
hostihties, leaving the continuance of the contest as a legacy 
to his sister-in-law. Queen Aime.^ England supphed the coah- 
tion with funds, a fleet, and also with the ablest commander of 
the age, the duke of Marlborough. In Eugene, prince of Savoy, 
the aUies had another skillful and daring general. The great 
victory gained by them at Blenheim in 1704 a.d. was the first 
of a series of successes which finally drove the French out of 
Germany and Italy and opened the road to Paris. But dissen- 
sions among the alhes and the heroic resistance of France and 
Spain enabled Louis to hold the enemy at bay, until the exhaus- 
tion of both sides led to the conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht. 

This peace ranks with that of Westphaha among the most 
important diplomatic arrangements of modern times. First, 
Louis's grandson, Phihp V, was recognized as king p^^^.^ 
of Spain and her colonies, on condition that the Utrecht, 
Spanish and French crowns should never be ^^^^ 
united. Since this time Bourbon sovereigns have continued to 
rule in Spain. Next, the Austrian Hapsburgs gained most of 
the Spanish dominions in Italy, as well as the Belgian or Span- 
ish Netherlands (henceforth for a century called the Austrian 
Netherlands). Finally, England obtained from France pos- 
sessions in North America, and from Spain the island of 
Minorca and the rock of Gibraltar, commanding the narrow 
entrance to the Mediterranean. England has never since 
relaxed her hold upon Gibraltar. 

1 In 1689 A.D. he ascended the Enghsh throne as William III. See page 720. 
» In America the war was known as "Queen Anne's War." 



702 Absolutism in France and England 



Brandenburg- 
Prussia and 
Savqy 



Two of the smaller members of the Grand Alliance 
likewise profited by the Peace of Utrecht. The right of 
the elector of Brandenburg to enjoy the title of king of 
Prussia was acknowledged. This formed an 
important step in the fortunes of the Hohenzol- 
lern ^ dynasty, which to-day rules over Germany. 
The duchy of Savoy also became a kingdom and received 

the island of Sicily (shortly 
afterwards exchanged for Sar- 
dinia). The house of Savoy in 
the nineteenth century provided 
Italy with its present reigning 
family. 

France lost far less by the war 
than at one time seemed probable. 
Position of Louis gave up his 
France dream of dominating 

Europe, but he kept all the Con- 
tinental acquisitions made earlier 
in his reign. And yet the price of 
the king's warlike poHcy had been 
a heavy one. France paid it in 
the shape of famine and pestilence, 
excessive taxes, heavy debts, and 
the impoverishment of the people. 
Louis, now a very old man, sur- 
vived the Peace of Utrecht only 
two years. As he lay on his death- 
bed, the king turned to his little heir ^ and said, "Try to keep 
peace with your neighbors. I have been too fond of war; do 
not imitate me in that, nor in my too great expenditure." 
These words of the dying king showed an appreciation of the 
errors which robbed his long reign of much of its glory. 




Marlborough 

A miniature in the possession of the 
Duke of Buccleugh. 



1 See page 315, note 2. 

2 His great-grandson, then a child of five years, 
covered the period 1715-1774 a.d. 



The reign of Louis XV 



The Absolutism of the Stuarts 703 



245. The Absolutism of the Stuarts, 1603-1642 A.D. 

During the same century which saw the triumph of absolu- 
tism and divine right in France, a successful struggle took 
place in England against the unlimited power of Tudor 
kings. Absolutism in England dated from the absolutism 
time of the Tudors. Henry VII humbled the nobles, while 
Henry VIII and Elizabeth brought the Church into dependence 
on the crown.^ These three sovereigns were strong and force- 
ful, but they were also excellent rulers and popular with the 
influential middle class in town and country. The Tudors 
gave England order and prosperity, if not political liberty. 

The English Parliament in the thirteenth century had be- 
come a body representative of all classes of the people, and in 
the fourteenth century it had separated into the parliament 
two houses of Lords and Commons. ^ Parliament under the 
enjoyed considerable authority at this time. The •'■^^^^^ 
kings, who were in continual need of money, summoned it 
frequently,, sought its advice upon important questions, and 
readily listened to its requests. The despotic Tudors, on the 
other hand, made Parliament their servant. Henry VII called 
it together on only five occasions during his reign; Henry VIII 
persuaded or frightened it into doing anything he pleased; and 
Elizabeth seldom consulted it. Parliament under the Tudors 
did not abandon its old claims to a share in the government, 
but it had little chance to exercise them. 

The death of Elizabeth in 1603 a.d. ended the Tudor dynasty 
and placed the Stuarts on the English throne in the person of 
James I.^ England and Scotland were now joined james I 
in a personal union, though each country retained king, 1603- 
its own Parliament, laws, and state Church. The ^^^^ 
new king was well described by a contemporary as the ''wisest 
fool in Christendom." He had a good mind and abundant 
learning, but throughout his reign he showed an utter inability 
to win either the esteem or the affection of his subjects. This 

1 See pages 518-519, 658, 675-676. 2 See page 507 

3 See pages 511, note i, 676 and note i. 



704 Absolutism in France and England 




was a misfortune, for the English had now grown weary of 
despotism and wanted more freedom. They were not prepared 
to tolerate in James, an alien, many things which they had 
overlooked in "Good Queen Bess." 

One of the most fruitful sources of discord between James 
and the Enghsh people was his exalted conception of monarchy. 
James I on The Tudors, indeed, claimed to rule by divine 
divine right j-ight, but James went further than they in argu- 
ing for divine hereditary right. Providence, James declared, had 
chosen the principle of heredity in order to fix the succession 

to the throne. This prin- 



ciple, being divine, lay be- 
yond the power of man 
to alter. Whether the 
king was fit or unfit to 
rule. Parliament might 
not change the succession, 
depose a sovereign, or 
limit his authority in any 
way. James rather neatly summarized his views in a Latin 
epigram, a deo rex, a rege lex — "the king is from God and law 
is from the king." 

Naturally enough, the extreme pretensions of James en- 
countered much opposition from Parliament. That body felt 
James I and little sympathy for a ruler who proclaimed him- 
Parliament gg^f ^-j^g source of all law. When James, always 
extravagant and a poor financier, came before it for money, 
Parliament insisted on its right to withhold supplies until 
grievances were redressed. James would not yield, and got 
along as best he could by levying customs duties, selling titles 
of nobility, and imposing excessive fines, in spite of the pro- 
tests of Parliament. This situation continued to the end of 
the king's reign. 

A religious controversy helped to embitter the dispute be- 
James I and tween James and Parliament. The king, who v/as 
Puritanism devout Anglican, made himself very unpopular 
with the Puritans, as the reformers within the Church of 



Gold Coin of James I 

The first coin to bear the legend "Great Britain." 



The Absolutism of the Stuarts 705 

England were called. The Puritans had no intention of separat- 
ing from the national or estabHshed Church, but they wished 
to ''purify" it of certain customs which they described as 
"Romish" or "papist." Among these were the use of the sur- 
plice, of the ring in the marriage service, and of the sign of 
the cross in baptism. Some Puritans wanted to get rid of the 
Book of Common Prayer altogether. The Puritans were dis- 
tinguished by their 
austere lives. They 
looked with disfavor 
on May Day and 
Christmas festivities, 
observed the Jewish 
Sabbath in aU its 
rigor, and condemned 
the Anglicans who 
played games and 
danced upon the vil- 
lage green on Sun- A Puritan Family 
days. As the Puritans Illustration in an edition of the Psalms published in 

had a large majority ' 1563 a.d. 

in the House of Commons, it was inevitable that the parlia- 
mentary struggle against Stuart absolutism would assume in 
part a religious character. 

The political and religious difficulties which marked the 
reign of James I did not disappear when his son, Charles I, 
came to the throne. Charles was a true Stuart charles I 
in his devotion to absolutism and divine right, king, 1625- 
Almost immediately he began to quarrel with 
Parliament. When that body withheld supplies, Charles re- 
sorted to forced loans from the wealthy and even imprisoned 
a number of persons who refused to contribute. Such arbi- 
trary acts showed plainly that Charles would play the tyrant 
if he could. 

The king's attitude at last led Parliament to a bold asser- 
tion of its authority. It now presented to Charles the 
celebrated Petition of Right. One of the most important 




7o6 



Absolutism in France and England 



clauses provided that forced loans without parhamentary sanc- 
tion should be considered illegal. Another clause declared 
Petition of ^^^^ should be arrested or imprisoned ex- 

Right, 1628 cept according to the law of the land. The Petition 

thus repeated and reinforced two of the leading 
principles of Magna Carta.^ The people of England, speaking 
this time through their elected representatives, asserted once 
more their right to hmit the power of kings. 

Charles signed the Petition, as the only means of securing 
parliamentary consent to taxation; but he had no intention of 
Personal observing it. For the next eleven years he man- 
Charles I ^^^^ govern without calhng Parhament in 
1629-1640 session. The conduct of affairs during this period 

lay largely in the hands of Sir Thomas Wentworth, 
afterwards earl of Strafford, and William Laud, who later be- 
came archbishop of Canterbury. The king made these two 
men his principal advisers and through them carried on his 
despotic rule. Arbitrary courts, which tried cases without a 
jury, punished those who resisted the royal will. A rigid censor- 
ship of the press prevented any expression of popular discon- 
tent. Public meetings were suppressed as seditious riots. Even 
private gatherings were dangerous, for the king had swarms of 
spies to report any disloyal acts or utterances. 

Since Charles ruled without a Parliament, he had to adopt 
all sorts of devices to fill his treasury. One of these was the 
johnHamp- levying of ''ship-money." According to an old 
^^sMp^ custom, seaboard towns and counties had been 
money" required to provide ships or money for the royal 
navy. Charles revived this custom and extended it to towns 
and counties lying inland. It seemed clear that the king meant 
to impose a permanent tax on all England without the assent 
of Parliament. The demand for "ship-money" aroused much 
opposition, and John Hampden, a wealthy squire of Bucking- 
hamshire, refused to pay the twenty shillings levied on his 
estate. Hampden was tried before a court of the royal judges 
and was convicted by a bare majority. He became, however, 

1 See page 505. 



The Absolutism of the Stuarts 



707 




Charles I 

A painting by Daniel Mytens, in the National Portrait Gallery, London. 



the hero of the hour. The England people recognized in him 
one who had dared, for the sake of principle, to protest against 
the king's despotic rule. 

Archbishop Laud, the king's chief agent in ecclesiastical 
matters, detested Puritanism and aimed to root it out from 
the Church of England. He put no Puritans to death, but he 



7o8 Absolutism in France and England 



sanctioned cruel punishments of those who would not conform 
to the established Church. All that the dungeon and the 
Laud's ec- piUory, mutilation and loss of position, could do 
clesiastical to break their will was done. While the restric- 
tions on Puritans were increased, those affecting 
Roman Catholics were relaxed. Many people thought that 
Charles, through Laud and the bishops, was preparing to lead 



•'ill 




Execution of the Earl of Strafford 

After a contemporary print. The Tower of London is seen in the background. 

the Church of England back to Rome. They therefore opposed 
the king on religious grounds, as well as for political reasons. 

But the personal rule of Charles was now drawing to an end. 
In 1637 A.D. the king, supported by Archbishop Laud, tried 
The Long introduce a modified form of the Enghsh prayer 

book into Scotland. The Scotch, Presbyterian ^ 
to the core, drew up a national oath, or Covenant, 
by which they bound themselves to resist any attempt to 
change their religion. Rebellion quickly passed into open war, 
1 See pages 657, 664, note i, C76. 



Parliament 
1640 A.D. 



7IO Absolutism in France and England 



and the Covenanters invaded northern England. Charles, 
helpless, with a seditious army and an empty treasury, had to 
summon Parliament in session. It met in 1640 a.d. and did 
not formally dissolve till twenty years later. Hence it has 
received the name of the Long Parliament. 

The Long Parliament no sooner assembled than it assumed 
the conduct of government. The leaders, including John 
Reforms of Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, 
the Long openly declared that the House of Commons, and 
Parliament king, possessed supreme authority in 

the state. Parhament began by executing Strafford and sub- 
sequently Laud, thus emphasizing the responsibihty of minis- 
ters to Parliament. Next, it abolished Star Chamber and other 
special courts, which had become engines of royal oppression. 
It forbade the levying of "ship-money" and other irregular 
taxes. It took away the king's right of dissolving Parlia- 
ment at his pleasure and ordered that at least one parliamen- 
tary session should be held every three years. These measures 
stripped the. crown of the despotic powers acquired by the 
Tudors and the Stuarts. 

246. OUver Cromwell and the Civil War, 1642-1649 A.D. 

Thus far, the Long Parliament had acted along the line of 
reformation rather than revolution. Had Charles been content 
Outbreak of to accept the new arrangements, there would have 
Rebdikm heen httle more trouble. But the proud and im- 
1642 A.D. perious king was only watching his chance to 
strike a blow at Parliament. Taking advantage of some dif- 
ferences in opinion among its members, Charles summoned his 
soldiers, marched to Westminister, and demanded the sur- 
render of five leaders, including Pym and Hampden. Warned 
in time, they made their escape, and Charles did not find them 
in the chamber of the Commons. "Well, I see all the birds are 
flown," he exclaimed, and walked out baffled. The king's 
attempt to intimidate the Commons was a great blunder. It 
showed beyond doubt that he would resort to force, rather 
than bend his neck to Parhament. Both Charles and Parlia- 



Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War 



711 



ment now began to gather troops and prepare for the inevi- 
table conflict. 

The opposing parties seemed to be very evenly matched. 
Around the king ralHed nearly aU of the nobles, the Anglican 
clergy, the Roman Cathohcs, a majority of the cavaliers " 
"squires," or country gentry, and the members and "Round- 
of the universities. The royahsts received the 
name of ''Cavaliers." The parHamentarians, or ''Round- 
heads," ^ were mostly recruited from the trading classes in the 
towns and the small landowners 
in the country. The w^orking people 
remained as a rule indifferent and 
took little part in the struggle. 

Both Pym and Hampden died in 

the second year of the war, and 

henceforth the leader- Oliver 
•L . r , 1 V Cromwell, 

ship of the parliamen- isgg-igss 
tary party fell to A.D. 
Oliver Cromwell. He was a coun- 
try gentleman from the east of 
England, and Hampden's cousin. 
Cromwell represented the univer- 
sity of Cambridge in the Long 
ParHament and displayed there 
great audacity in opposing the 
government. An unfriendly critic at this time describes "his 
countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp and untune- 
able, and his eloquence full of fervor." Though a zealous Puri- 
tan, who beheved himseh in all sincerity to be the chosen agent 
of the Lord, Cromwell was not an ascetic. He hunted, hawked, 
played bowls, and other games, had an ear for music, and 
valued art and learning. In public life he showed himself a 
statesman of much insight and a military genius. 

At the outset of the war fortune favored the royalists, until 
Cromwell took the field. To him was due the formation of a 




Oliver Cromwell 

A painting by Robert Walker, in the 
National Portrait Gallery, London. 



1 So called, because some of them wore closely cropped hair, in contrast to th§ 
flowing locks-o£ the "Cavaliers." 



712 Absolutism in France and England 



cavalry regiment of "honest, sober Christians," whose watch- 
words were texts from Scripture and who charged in battle 

The "Iron- while singing psalms. These "Ironsides," as 
sides " £ind 

the ''New Cromwell said, "had the fear of God before them 
Model " and made some conscience of what they did." They 
were so successful that ParHament permitted Cromwell to reor- 
ganize a large part of the army into the "New Model," a body 
of professional, highly discipHned soldiers. The "New Model" 
defeated Charles decisively at the battle of Naseby, near the 
center of England (1645 a.d.). Charles then surrendered to the 
Scotch, who soon turned him over to Parliament. 

The surrender of the king ended the Great Rebellion, but left 
the poUtical situation in doubt. By this time the Puritans had 
Presbyterians divided into two rival parties. The Presbyterians 
and wished to make the Church of England, like that 

Independents Scotland, Presbyterian in faith and worship. 
Through their control of Parliament, they were able to pass 
acts doing away with bishops, forbidding the use of the Book 
of Common Prayer, and requiring every one to accept Presby- 
terian doctrines. The other Puritan party, known as the 
Independents,^ felt that religious beliefs should not be a matter 
of compulsion. They rejected both Anglicanism and Presby- 
terianism and desired to set up churches of their own, where 
they might worship as seemed to them right. The Independ- 
ents had the powerful backing of Cromwell and the "New 
Model," so that the stage was set for a quarrel between Parlia- 
ment and the army. 

King Charles, though a prisoner in the hands of his enemies, 
hoped to find profit in their divisions. The Presbyterian 
n Pride's majority in the House of Commons was willing 
Purge," to restore the king, provided he would give his 
1643 A.D. assent to the estabhshment of Presbyterianism in 
England. But the army wanted no reconciliation with the 
captive monarch and at length took matters into its own hand. 
A party of soldiers, under the command of a Colonel Pride, 
excluded the Presbyterian members from the floor of the House, 

^ Also called Separatists, and later known as Congregationaiists. 



Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War 713 



leaving the Independents alone to conduct the government. 
This action is known as "Pride's Purge." Cromwell approved 
of it, and from this time he became the real ruler of England. 




Interior of Westminster Hall 

Next to the Tower and the Abbey, Westminster Hall, adjoining the Houses of Parliament, 
is the most historic building in London. The hall was begun by William Rufus in logy a.d. 
and was enlarged by his successors. Richard II in 1397 a.d. added the great oak roof, which 
has lasted to this day. Here were heM the trials of Strafford and Charles I. 



The ''Rump Parhament," as the remnant of the House of 
Commons was called, immediately brought the king before a 
High Court of Justice composed of his bitterest Execution 
enemies. He refused to acknowledge the right of of Charles I, 
the court to try him and made no defense what- ^^^^ 
ever. Charles was speedily convicted and sentenced to be 
beheaded, "as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy 
to the good of the people." He met death with quiet dignity 
and courage on a scaffold erected in front of Whitehall Palace 
in London. The king's execution went far beyond the wishes 
of most Englishmen; "cruel necessity" formed its only jus- 
tification; but it established once for all in England the 
principle that rulers are responsible to their subjects. 



714 



Absolutism in France and England 



247. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 1649-1660 A.D. 

Shortly after the execution of Charles I the ''Rump Parha- 
ment" abohshed the House of Lords and the office of king. 
England a It named a Council of State, most of whose mem- 
repubUc j^gj-g ^gj-g chosen from the House of Commons, 
to carry on the government. England now became a common- 
wealth, or national republic, the first in the history of the 
world. It is clear that this republic was the creation of a minor- 
ity. The AngHcans, the Presbyterians, and the Roman Catho- 
lics were willing to restore the monarchy, but as long as the 
power lay with the army, the small sect of Independents could 
impose its will on the great majority of the English people. 

Besides confusion and discontent at home, many dangers 
confronted the Commonwealth abroad. In both Ireland and 
Subjection Scotland Prince Charles, the oldest son of the 
of Ireland (jgg^^j sovereign, had been proclaimed king. But 
Cromwell rose to the emergency. Invading Ireland with his 
trained soldiers, he captured town after town, slaughtered 
many royalists, and shipped many more to the West Indies as 
slaves. This time Ireland was completely subdued, at a cost, 
from fighting, famine, and pestilence, of the lives of a third of 
its population. Cromwell confiscated the land of those who had 
supported the royalist cause and planted colonies of EngUsh 
Protestants in Ulster, Leinster, and Munster. The Roman 
Catholic gentry were compelled to remove beyond the Shannon 
River to unfruitful Connaught. Even there the pubhc exer- 
cise of their religion was forbidden them. Cromwell's harsh 
measures brought peace to Ireland, but only intensified the 
hatred felt by Irish Roman Catholics for Protestant England.^ 

While Cromwell was still in Ireland, Prince Charles, who 
had been living as an exile at the French court, came to Scot- 
Scotland land. On his promise to be a Presbyterian king 
subdued |-]^g vv^hole nation agreed to support him. Crom- 
well, in two pitched battles, broke up the Scotch armies and 
compelled Prince Charles to seek safety in flight. After thrill- 
1 See pages 511, 676. 



The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 715 




ing adventures the prince managed to reach his asylum in 
France. Cromwell treated the Scotch with leniency, but took 
away their ParUament and united their country with England 
in a single state. 

Meanwhile, the "Rump Parliament" had become more and 
more unpopular. The army, which had saved England from 
Stuart despotism, did not reUsh the spectacle of a small group 
of men, many of them selfish and corrupt, presuming to govern 



7i6 



Absolutism in France and England 



the country. Cromwell found them ^'horridly arbitrary" and at 
last resolved to have done with them. He entered the House 
Dissolution of Commons with a band of musketeers and ordered 

of the ^Yic members home. "Come, come," he cried, "I 

** Rump ' ' ' 

Parliament," will put an end to your prating. You are no Par- 
1653 A.D. hament, I say you are no Parliament. I will put an 
end to your sitting." Another Parliament, chosen by Cromwell 




Great Seal of England under the Commonwealth (Reduced) 

The reverse represents the House of Commons in session. 

and the army, proved equally incapable. After a few months' 
rule it resigned its authority into the hands of Cromwell. 

By force of circumstances Cromwell had become a virtual 
Thelnstru- dictator, but he had no love of absolute power, 
ment of He therefore accepted a so-called Instrument of 
Government Government, drawn up by some of his officers. It 



The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution" 717 



provided that Cromwell should be Lord Protector for life, with 
the assistance of a council and a Parhament. The Instru- 
ment is notable as the first written constitution of a modern 
nation. It is the -only one which England has ever had. 

As Lord Protector in name, though a king in fact, Cromwell 
ruled England for five years. He got along with Parliament 
no better than the Stuarts had done, but his Cromwell as 
successful conduct of foreign affairs gave England tecto/*l653- 
an importance in the councils of Europe which it 1658 A.D. 
had not enjoyed since the time of Elizabeth. Cromwell died 
in 1658 A.D. Two years later the nation, weary of military 
rule, restored Charles II to the throne of his ancestors. 

It seemed, indeed, as if the Puritan Revolution had been a 
complete failure. But this was hardly true. The revolution 
arrested the growth of absolutism in England. The Puritan 
It created among Enghshmen a lasting hostility to Revolution 
absolute power, whether exercised by King, Parliament, Pro- 
tector, or army. And, furthermore, it sent forth into the world 
ideas of political liberty, which, during the eighteenth century, 
helped to produce the American and French revolutions. 

248. The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution," 
1660-1689 A.D. 

Charles II, on mounting the throne, pledged himself to 
maintain Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and other 
statutes limiting the royal power. The people of Reign of 
England wished to be governed by the king, but lee^liegs 
they also wished that the king should govern by A.D. 
the advice of Parliament. Charles, less obstinate and more 
astute than his father, recognized this fact, and, when a con- 
flict threatened with his ministers or Parliament, always 
avoided it by timely concessions. Whatever happened, he 
used to say, he was resolved "never to set on his travels again." 
Charles's charm of manner, wit, and genial humor made him 
a popular monarch, in spite of his grave faults of character. 
One of his own courtiers well described him as a king who 
''never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one." 



7i8 Absolutism in France and England 




The period of the Restoration was characterized by a reac- 
tion against the austere scheme of hfe which the Puritans had 
Reaction imposed on society. Puritanism not only deprived 
against the people of evil pleasures, such as bear-baiting, 

un amsm cock-fighting, and tipphng, but it also prohibited 
the Sunday dances and games, the village festivals, and the 

popular drama. 
When Puritanism 
disappeared, the 
people went to 
the opposite ex- 
treme and cast off 
all restraint. In 
this the king, who 
had lived long at 
the gay court of 
Louis XIV, set 
the example. 
England was 
never more merry 
and never less moral than under its ''Merry Monarch." 

The Restoration brought back the Church of England, to- 
gether with the Stuarts. Parliament, more intolerant than the 
The Dis- king, passed an Act of Uniformity, which made 
senters Qf Book of Common Prayer compulsory 

and required all ministers to express their consent to every- 
thing contained in it. Nearly two thousand clergymen resigned 
their positions rather than obey the act. Among them were 
found Presbyterians, Independents (or Congregationalists)^ 
Baptists, and Quakers. These Puritans, since they did not 
accept the national Church, were henceforth classed as Dis- 
senters.^ They might not hold meetings for worship, or teach 
in schools, or accept any public ofhce. For many years the 
Dissenters had to endure harsh persecution. 

One of the most important events belonging to the reign of 



Boys' Sports 

From a book of 1659 a.d. 



1 Or Noncomformists. This name is still applied to English Protestants not 
members of the Anglican Church. 



The Restoration and the "Glorious Revolution" 719 




Charles II was the passage by Parliament of the Habeas Corpus 
Act. The writ of habeas corpus ^ is an order, issued Habeas 
by a judge, requiring a person held in custody to Corpus Act, 
be brought before the court. If upon examina- ^^^^ 
tion there appears to be good reason for keeping the prisoner, 
he is to be remanded for trial; otherwise he is to be freed or 
released on bail. This writ had been long used in England, and 
one of the clauses of 
Magna Carta expressly 
provided against arbitrary 
imprisonment. It had al- 
ways been possible, how- 
ever, for the king or his 

ministers to order the ar- 

. r 'A A Sil\t:r Crown of Charles II 

rest of a person considered 

dangerous to the state, without making any formal charge 
against him. The Habeas Corpus Act estabUshed the principle 
that every man, not charged with or convicted of a known 
crime, is entitled to personal freedom. Most of the British 
possessions where the Common law prevails have accepted 
the act, and it has been adopted by the federal and state 
legislatures of the United States. 

The reign of Charles II also saw the beginning of the modern 
party system in Parliament. Two opposing parties took shape, 
very largely out of a religious controversy. The Whigs and 
king, from his long life in France, had become Tones 
partial to Roman CathoUcism, though he did not formally 
embrace that faith until at the moment of death. His brother 
James, the heir to the throne, became an open Roman Catholic, 
however, much to the disgust of many members of Parliament. 
A bill was now brought forward to exclude Prince James from 
the succession, because of his conversion. Its supporters re- 
ceived the nickname of Whigs, while those who opposed it 
were called Tories.^ The bill did not pass the House of Lords, 



1 A Latin phrase meaning "You may have the body." 

2 Whig had originally been appUed to rebellious Presbyterians in Scotland; 
Tory had designated Roman Catholic outlaws in Ireland. 



720 



Absolutism in France and England 



but the two parties in Parliament continued to divide on other 
questions. They survive to-day as the Liberals and the 
Conservatives, and still dispute the government of England 
between them. 

James II was without the attractive personality which had 
made his brother a popular ruler; moreover, he was an avowed 
Reign of Roman CathoHc and a staunch believer in the 
16^-1688 divine right of kings. During his three years' 
A.D. reign, James managed to make enemies of most 

of his Protestant subjects. He suspended" the laws against 
Roman Catholics and appointed them to positions of authority 
and influence. James also dismissed Parliament and supported 
himself with subsidies from Louis XIV. At last a number of 
Whig and Tory leaders, representing both parties in Parlia- 
ment, invited that sturdy Protestant, William of Orange,^ to 
rescue England from Stuart absolutism. 

William landed in England with a small army and marched 
unopposed to London. The wretched king, deserted by his 
Accession of courtiers and his soldiers, soon found himself 
Mary,^689^ alone. He fled to France, where he lived the re- 
A.D. mainder of his days as a pensioner at the court of 

Louis XIV. Parliament granted the throne conjointly to 
WiUiam and Mary, WiUiam to rule during his lifetime and 
Mary to have the succession, should she survive him. 

In settHng the crown on William and Mary, Parhament 
took care to safeguard its own authority and the 
mg^s^ Protestant religion. It enacted the Bifl of Rights, 
which has a place by the side of Magna Carta and 
the Petition of Right among the great documents of English 
constitutional history. This act decreed that the sovereign 
must henceforth be a member of the Anglican Church. It 
forbade the sovereign to ''suspend" the operation of the laws, 
or to levy money or maintain a standing army except by con- 
sent of Parliament. It also declared that election of members of 
Parliament ought to be free; that they ought to enjoy freedom 
of speech and action within the two Houses; and that exces- 
1 See page 701. William had married James's eldest daughter, Mary. 



England in the Seventeenth Century 721 



sive bail ought not to be required, or excessive fines imposed, 
or cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Finally, it affirmed 
the right of subjects to petition the sovereign and ordered the 
holding of frequent Parliaments. These were not new prin- 
ciples of political liberty, but now the English people were 
strong enough not only to assert, but also to uphold them. 
They reappear in the first ten amendments to the Constitution 
of the United States. 

At this time, also, England took an important step in the 
direction of religious liberty. Parliament passed a Toleration 
Act, conceding to the Dissenters the right of The Tolera- 
public worship, though not the right of holding 
any civil or military office. The Dissenters might now serve 
their God as they pleased, without fear of persecution. Uni- 
tarians and Roman Catholics, as well as Jews, were expressly 
excluded from the benefits of the act. The passage of this 
measure did much to remove religion from English politics as 
a vital issue. 

The revolution of i6S8-8g a.d. thus struck a final blov/ at 
absolutism and divine right in England. An English king be- 
came henceforth the servant of Parliament, holding ^j^^ Glori- 
office only on good behavior. An act of Parlia- ous Revolu- 
ment had made him and an act of Parliament 
might depose him. It is well to remember, however, that the 
revolution was not a popular movement. It was a successful 
struggle for parliamentary supremacy on the part of the upper 
and middle classes — the nobles, squires, merchants, and 
clergy. England now had a "limited" or ''constitutional" 
monarchy controlled by the aristocracy. Not till the nineteenth 
century did the common people succeed in establishing a 
really democratic government in England. 

249. England in the Seventeenth Century 

The population of England at the close of the seventeenth 
century exceeded five millions, of whom at least Social 
two-thirds lived in the country. Except for Lon- England 
don there were only four towns of more than ten thousand 



722 Absolutism in France and England 

inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its 
limits and had become the largest city in Europe. Town life 

still wore a medieval 
look, but the in- 
crease of wealth 
gradually introduced 
many new comforts 
and luxuries. Coal 
came into use in- 
stead of charcoal; 
tea, coffee, and 
chocolate competed 
with wine, ale, and 
beer as beverages; 
the first newspapers 
appeared, generally 
in weekly editions; 
amusements multi- 
plied; and passenger 
coaches began to ply 
between London and the provincial centers. The highways, 
however, were wretched and infested with robbers. The traveler 
found some recompense for the hardships of a journey in the 
country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The 
transport of goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because 
of the poor roads and the absence of canals. Postal arrange- 
ments also remained very primitive, and in remote country dis- 
tricts letters were not delivered more than once a week. The 
difficulties of travel and communication naturally made for 
isolation; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited 
the metropolis. 

As the population of England increased, old industries de- 
veloped and new ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was 
Economic that of wool, while that of silk flourished after 
England ^j^g influx of Huguenots which followed the revo- 
cation of the Edict of Nantes.^ The absence of large textile 

I See page 6g6. 




A London Bellman 

Title-page of a tract published in 1616 a.d. It was part 
of the duties of a bellman, or night-watchman, to call out 
the hours, the state of the weather, and other information 
as he passed by. 



England in the Seventeenth Century 723 

mills made it necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in 
the homes of the operatives. The vast mineral deposits, which 
in later times became the main source of England's prosperity, 
were then little worked. Farming and the raising of sheep 
and cattle still remained the principal occupations. But agri- 
culture was retarded by the old system of common tillage and 




Coach and Sedan Chair 

Title-page of a tract published in 1636 a.d. 



open fields, just as industry was fettered by the trade monopoly 
of the craft guilds. These survivals of the Middle Ages had 
not yet disappeared. 

The seventeenth century in England saw a notable advance 
in science. At this time Harvey revealed the circulation of 
the blood.^ Napier, a Scotchman, invented loga- Scientific 
rithms, which lie at the basis of the higher mathe- Progress 
matics. Boyle, an Irishman, has been called the ''father of 
modern chemistry," so many were his researches in that field of 
knowledge. Far greater than any of these men was Sir Isaac 
Newton, who discovered the law of gravitation and the differ- 
ential calculus. During the Civil War a group of students 
interested in the natural world began to hold meetings in 
London and Oxford, and shortly after the Restoration they 
obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Society. It 
still exists and enrolls among its members the most distin- 
guished scientists of England. The Royal Observatory at 
Greenwich also dates from the period of the Restoration. Al- 
together much was being done to uncover the secrets of nature. 
1 See page 609. 



724 Absolutism in France and England 

Seventeenth century England produced no very eminent 
painters or sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and 
Progress Van Dyck, were welcomed there, 
of art Among architects the most fa- 

mous was Sir Christopher Wren, who did much 
to popularize the Renaissance style of build- 
ing.^ A great fire which destroyed most of 
old London during the reign of Charles II gave 
Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty 
parish churches, as well as St. Paul's Cathe- 
dral. His tomb in the crypt of the cathedral 
bears the famous inscription: Si monumentum 
requieris, circumspice: " If you seek his monu- 
ment, look around you." 

EngHsh literature in the seventeenth century 
covered many fields. Shakespeare and Bacon, 

Death Mask of Literature ^^^^^ hterary ornaments 

Sir Isaac New- of the Elizabethan Age, did some 

of their best work during the reign of James I. 
the^Royai^foSy of In 1611 A.D. appeared the Authorized Version 

of the Bible, sometimes called the King James 
Version because it was dedicated to that monarch. The sim- 
plicity, dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never 
been excelled, and it still remains in ordinary use among Prot- 
estants throughout the English-speaking world.^ The Puritan 
poet, John Milton, composed his epic of Paradise Lost during 
the reign of Charles II. About the same time another Puritan, 
John Bunyan, wrote the immortal Pilgrim's Progress, a book 
which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and 
adults, to the ignorant and the learned. But these are only a 
few of the eminent poets and prose writers of the age. 

Thus, aside from its political importance, the seventeenth 
century formed a noteworthy period in English history. Eng- 
land until this time had been, on the whole, a follower rather 




1 See page 597. 

2 Many important corrections were embodied in the Revised Version, published 
in 1881-1885 A.D. by a committee of English scholars. 



England in the Seventeenth Century 725 



than a leader of Europe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, 
the overthrow of Stuart absolutism, and the check Position 
administered to the aggressive designs of Louis England 
XIV were so many indications that England had risen to a 
place of first importance in European affairs. During this 
century, too, the American colonies of England began to lay 
the basis for Anglo-Saxon predominance in the New World. 

Studies 

I. Give dates for (a) Peace of Utrecht, (b) execution of Charles I, (c) the "Glori- 
ous Revolution," and (d) revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 2. For what were 
the following men notable: Pym; Bossuet; duke of Marlborough; Louvois; Hamp- 
den; Mazarin; William III; and Colbert? 3. Explain and illustrate the following 
terms: (o) balance of power; (b) budget system; (c) absolutism; (d) writ of ha- 
beas corpus; (e) miUtarism; (/) "ship-money," and (g) Star Chamber. 4. Com- 
pare the theory of the divine right of kings with the medieval theory of the papal 
supremacy. 5. In what European coxmtries do kings still rule by divine right? 
6. What is the essential distinction between a "limited" or "constitutional" mon- 
archy and an "absolute" or "autocratic" monarchy? 7, Why is it very desirable 
for the United States to adopt the budget system? 8. After what French king 
was Louisiana named? 9. Why did the French language in the seventeenth cen- 
tury become the language of fashion and diplomacy? Is this still the case? 
10. "The age of Louis XIV in France is worthy to stand by the side of the age 
of Pericles in Greece and of Augustus in Italy." Does this statement appear to 
be justified? 11. How does the preservation of the balance of power help to ex- 
plain the Great European War? 12. By reference to the map on page 699 show 
how far the "national boundaries" of France were attained during the reign of 
Louis XIV. 13. How did the condition of Germany after 1648 a.d. facilitate the 
efforts of Louis XIV to extend the French frontiers to the Rhine? 14. Show that 
in the Peace of Utrecht nearly all the contestants profited at the expense of Spain. 
15. Explain: "Rump Parliament"; "Pride's Purge"; the "New Model"; the 
"Ironsides"; "CavaUer"; and "Roundhead." 16. What circumstances gave 
rise to (o) the Petition of Right; {b) the Institute of Government; (c) the Habeas 
Corpus Act; and (d) the Bill of Rights? 17. Why were the reformers within the 
Church of England called "Puritans"? 18. Contrast the Commonwealth as a 
national repubUc with the Athenian and Roman city-states, the medieval Italian 
cities, the Swiss Confederation, and the United Netherlands. 19. Under what 
circumstances does the Constitution of the United States provide for the suspen- 
sion of the writ of habeas corpus? 20. Why has the Bill of Rights been called the 
"third great charter of English liberty"? 21. Show that the revolution of 1688 
A.D. was a "preserving" and not a "destroying" revolution. 22. How did the 
revolution of 1688 a.d. affect the fortunes of Louis XIV? 23. Why did it prove 
more difficult to establish a despotic monarchy in England than in France during 
the seventeenth century? 24. What is the present population of England? of 
"Greater London?" 



CHAPTER XXIX 



THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 
IN NORTH AMERICA, 1607-1763 A.D. 

250. Mercantilism and Trading Companies 

Until 1600 a.d. Spain and Portugal had chiefly profited by 
the geographical (discoveries and colonizing movements of the 
A New preceding century. The decline of these two 

England and countries enabled Holland, England, and France 
a New France ^^^^ .^^^ their place as rivals for colonial empire 
and the sovereignty of the seas. The Dutch secured the Portu- 
guese possessions in the East Indies, but, except for a few West 
Indian islands and the settlement of Guiana, did not gain a 
permanent foothold in the New World. The English and French 
were more successful. They entered the vast wilderness of 
North America to conquer, christianize, and civilize the natives 
and to found there a New England and a New France. 

Many motives inspired the colonizing movement of the 
seventeenth century. Political aims had considerable weight. 
Motives for Both England and France desired colonial de- 
colomzation pendencies, in order to restrict the overweening 
power of Spain in the New World. Again, the rehgious impulse 
played a part. English and French colonization took on some- 
thing of the nature of a crusade, for it meant the propagation 
of the Gospel among "infidels and savages." But the main 
motive was economic. Colonies were planted in order to fur- 
nish the home land with raw materials for its manufactures, 
new markets, and favorable opportunities for the investment of 
capital in commerce and industry. 

Most European statesmen at this time accepted the principles 
of the mercantile system. Mercantilism is the name given to an 
jjjg economic doctrine which emphasized the impor- 

mercantile tance of manufactures and foreign trade, rather 
system ^|^^^ agriculture and domestic trade, as sources 

of national wealth. Some mercantiHsts even argued that the 

726 



Mercantilism and Trading Companies 727 



prosperity of a nation is in exact proportion to the amount of 
money in circulation within its borders. They urged, therefore, 
that each country should so conduct its deaUngs with other 
countries as to attract to itseh the largest possible share of the 
precious metals. This could be most easily done by fostering 
exports of manufactures, through bounties and special privileges, 
and by discouraging imports, except of raw materials. If the 
country sold more to foreigners than it bought of them, then there 
would be a "favorable balance of trade," and this balance the 
foreigners would have to make up in coin or bullion. As one 
mercantilist expressed it, the regular means "to increase our 
wealth and treasure is by foreign trade, wherein we must ever 
observe this rule: to sell more to strangers yearly than we con- 
sume of theirs in value." ^ 

Large and flourishing colonies seemed essential to the success 
of the mercantile system. Colonies were viewed simply as 
estates to be worked for the advantage of the coun- Mercantilism 
try fortunate enough to possess them. Hence the and colonial 
home government did its best to prevent other 
governments from trading with its dependencies. At the same 
time it either prohibited or placed serious restrictions on colonial 
manufactures which might compete with those of the mother 
country. Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, and 
now Holland, England and France in the seventeenth century, 
pursued this colonial policy. 

The home government did not itself engage in colonial com- 
merce. It ceded this privilege to private companies organized 
for the purpose. A company, in return for the Trading 
monopoly of trade with the inhabitants of a colony, companies 
was expected to govern and protect them. 

The first form of association was the regulated company. 

Each member, after paying the entrance fee, traded „ 

. , , . ' . . , ' , , Regulated 

with his own. capital at nis own risk and kept andjoint- 

his profits to himself. After a time this loose . 

. . companies 
association gave way to the jomt-stock company. 

The members contributed to a general fund and, instead of 

1 Thomas Mun, England's Treasure by Forraign Trade, London, 1664, chap. ii. 



728 England and France in America 

trading themselves, appointed a few of their number to conduct 
the business. Each one who invested his capital would then 
receive a "dividend" on his "shares" of the joint stock, provided 
the enterprise was successful. The joint-stock companies of 
the seventeenth century thus served as a connecting hnk with 
modern corporations. 

Trading companies were very numerous. For instance, 
England, Holland, France, Sweden, and Denmark, as well as 
Examples of Scotland and Prussia, each chartered its own 
trading "East India Company." There were English 

companies companies organized for trade with Russia, the 
Baltic lands, Turkey, India, China, Morocco, Guiana, the 
Bermudas, the Canaries, and Hudson Bay. Still other com- 
panies colonized North America. 

251. The English Settlement of Virginia and 
Massachusetts 

Englishmen, under the Tudors, had done very httle as colon- 
ists. Henry VII, indeed, encouraged Cabot to make the 
Lateness of discoveries of 1497-1498 A.D. on which the English 
English claims to North America were based. During 

colonization Elizabeth's reign Sir Martin Frobisher explored 
the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, and another "sea-dog," 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, sought without success to colonize 
Newfoundland. Gilbert's half-brother. Sir Walter Raleigh, 
planted a settlement in the region then called Virginia, but lack 
of support from home caused it to perish miserably. ^ The 
truth was that sixteenth-century Englishmen had first to break 
the power of Spain in Europe before they could give much 
attention to America. Only after the destruction of the Spanish 
Armada in 1588 a.d.^ were they in a position to estabhsh Ameri- 
can colonies without interference from Spain. 

Having found the task of private colonization too great for 
his energies and purse, Raleigh assigned his interests in Virginia 



1 See page 639. 

2 See page 679. 



Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 729 



to a group of merchants and adventurers. For several years 
nothing was done, but at last in 1606 a.d. they ^, ^ ^ 

^ T -r 1 r ^ ■ The Londoii 

obtained from James I a charter for the mcorpo- and Plymouth 

ration of two joint-stock companies, one centering 
in London and the other in Plymouth. The char- 
ter claimed for England all the North American continent from 
the thirty-fourth to the forty-fifth degrees, north latitude. 



companies, 
1606 A.D. 




Ruins of the Brick Church at Jamestown 

Jamestown is now an island, for the sandy beach which once con- 
nected it with the mainland has disappeared. Only the ruins of the 
brick church erected in 1639 a.d. and some of the tombs in the church- 
yard remain. 



The London company had the exclusive right to colonize the 
territory between Cape Fear and the Potomac River, and the 
Plymouth company had a similar right in the area between 
the Hudson River and the Bay of Fundy. ^ Both companies 
might occupy the intervening region, but neither was to 
establish a colony within one hundred miles of a settlement 
made by the other. 

The London Company promptly took steps to colonize its 
share of Virginia. On New Year's Day, 1607 a.d., a party of 

1 See the map on page 735. 



730 England and France in America 

one hundred and twenty men left the shores of England and 
after four wearisome months on the ocean reached 

The 

Jamestown the capes of Chesapeake Bay.^ They entered 
1607^A^*' ^ peninsula in the broad river 

which they named after the king who gave them 
their charter founded Jamestown, the first permanent settlement 
of Englishmen in the New World. 

Colonization in the seventeenth century formed a death- 
struggle with nature; and the privations endured by the settlers 
Virginia Virginia are a familiar story in American history. 

Of more than six thousand people who arrived 
between 1607-16 24 a.d., four fifths died of hunger and disease 
or at the hands of the Indians. The colony would doubtless 
have disappeared like its predecessors, but for the energy and 
determination of Captain John Smith, who forced the idlers 
to work and coaxed or bullied the Indians into supplying food. 
The future of Virginia was not assured till the colonists turned 
to tobacco raising, for which the yellow soil is unsurpassed in 
the world. "The weed," as King James called it in derision, 
brought a high price abroad, and its cultivation quickly became 
the principal industry of Virginia. It was the only staple 
product which the colony exported to England. 

The London Company did not long enjoy the favor of James 
I. He had no liking for the Puritans who controlled it and 
Virginia a turned the meetings of the stockholders into poli- 
royal colony, tical gatherings for resistance to the king's meas- 
1624 A.D. YLYQS. James finally brought suit against the 
company in the courts and had its charter annulled. Vir- 
ginia now became a. royal colony and so remained through- 
out the colonial period, except for a few years of Puritan 
supremacy in England. The English king appointed the 
governor, but as a rule allowed the settlers to manage their 
own affairs. 

The colonization of New England was begun by the Pilgrims, 
who belonged to the sect of Independents or Separatists.^ 



1 Named Cape Henry and Cape Charles, for the two sons of James I. 

2 See page 712. 



Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 731 



Persecuted by Elizabeth and James I, many Separatists went to 

Holland, where liberty of conscience was allowed. 

^ , r 1 . 1 . -r^ 1. 1 1 The Pilgrims 

But the prospect of losmg their English speech 

and customs among the Dutch did not please them, and 

presently the exiles began to long for another home, where "they 

might more glorify God, do more good to their country, better 

provide for their posterity, and live to be more refreshed by their 

labors, than ever they could do in Holland." Accordingly, 

one congregation, 

dwelling at Leyden, 

decided to emigrate 

to America. Having 

obtained from the 

London Company a 

patent to colonize 

within the limits of 

Virginia, a party of 

one hundred and two 

men, women, and 

children set sail in 

the Mayflower. They 

intended to settle 

somewhere south of 

the Hudson River, 

but when they sighted 

land it was the peninsula of Cape Cod. After exploring the 

coast, the emigrants came to the sheltered harbor which John 

Smith had already named Plymouth on his map, and here 

they landed. 

The Pilgrims found themselves outside the territory granted 
to the London Company and hence could not use their patent 
for colonization. Before leaving the Mayflower, 
therefore, they took steps to provide for the Mayflower 
orderly rule of their little community. The leaders jgjJJ^^^^i 
of the party signed their names to a compact, 
establishing a "civil body politic," and they promised to obey 
all laws necessary for the "general good." This document, 




The "Mayflower" 

From the model in the Smithsonian Institution 
at Washington. 



732 



England and France in America 



too vague to be called a constitution, nevertheless reveals the 
Pilgrim instinct for self-government. 

To settle on the New England coast in mid-winter was a 
grim business. More than half of the Pilgrims died before 
Plymouth spring came, and after ten years they had increased 
to little more than three hundred. Yet the Pil- 
grims did not despair, for they were determined to found a 




Captain John Smith's Map of New England 

In 1614 A.D., Captain John Smith explored the American coast from Maine to Cape Cod 
and called the country New England. On the map which he drew the young son of 
James I, afterwards Charles I, gave English and Scottish names to more than thirty places. 
Of these, Charles River, Cape Ann, and Plymouth still remain as originally designated. 



religious asylum in the American wilderness. "Let it not be 
grievous to you," said their friends in England, "that you have 
been instruments to break the ice for others; the honor shall be 
yours to the world's end." And instruments they were. The 
Pilgrim settlement at Plymouth formed the forerunner of that 



Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 733 



Massa- 
chusetts, 
1630-1640 
A.D. 



great Puritan exodus which in the third decade of the seventeenth 
century colonized Massachusetts. 

The colony of Massachusetts ^ had its origin in the desire of 
the Puritans to found a self-governing community far removed 
from Stuart absolutism in pohtics and religion. 
Some Puritan leaders purchased a large tract of 
land from the Plymouth Company and obtained 
from Charles I a charter incorporating them as the 
Company of Massachusetts Bay. The ''great emigration 
began in 1630 a.d., under the 
guidance of John Winthrop, who 
served as the first governor. The 
settlers established themselves at 
Salem, Boston, Chariest own, and 
other places on Massachusetts 
Bay. During the next ten years 
more than twenty thousand Puri- 
tans left England for America. 
This was the period when Charles I 
ruled without a Parliament, and 
when Archbishop Laud harried so 
cruelly all who did not conform 
to the established Church.^ After 
the opening of the Long Parlia- 
ment in 1640 A.D. the Puritans 
found enough to do at home, and Massachusetts received few 
more immigrants during the colonial period. 

The charter which Charles I gave to the Puritans did not 

require that the seat of government should be in England, as 

had been the case with previous grants. Accord- 

ingly, the company decided to take its charter to setts a royal 

Massachusetts and to found there an almost in- colony, 1691 

A.D. 

dependent state. Kang Charles was too busy 

with domestic problems to interfere with these bold Puritans 

overseas, and their friend, Cromwell, after his rise to power, 

1 An Algonkin Indian word meaning "Great Hills." 

2 See pages 707-708 




John Winthrop 

After the original in the Massachusetts 
Senate Chamber, Boston. 



734 



England and France in America 



did not molest them. Charles II, however, took away their 
cherished charter, and James II treated the liberties of English- 
men in America with the same contempt with which he treated 
their liberties at home. Soon after his accession William III 
granted them a new charter. It confirmed the right of the 
people to be governed by a legislature of their own choosing, 
but required them to accept a governor appointed by the king. 
Henceforth Massachusetts formed a royal colony. 



252. The Thirteen Colonies 



Massachusetts was the foremost of the Puritan settlements. 
Before the end of the seventeenth century it had absorbed 
The New Plymouth and had thrown out the off -shoots which 
England presently became Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
colonies New Hampshire.^ These four New England 

colonies formed a distinct geographical group, while the cir- 
cumstances of their foundation also gave them a political and 
religious character unlike that of the other colonies. 

Around Virginia as their center grew up another group of 
colonies, with a history and character in many respects unlike 
those of New England. To the north of Virginia 

Maryland 

arose the colony of Maryland, which Charles I 
granted to George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. He died before 
the charter was actually issued, and it was given to his son, 
Cecil, who established the first settlement. Maryland, so called 
in honor of the queen of England, became a refuge for perse- 
cuted Roman Cathohcs, as well as a great family estate of the 
barons of Baltimore. The charter conferred upon them the 
rights and privileges of feudal lords. They owned the land, 
appointed officers, and made the laws with the assistance of 
the free settlers. Maryland, therefore, stands as the type of 
a proprietary colony. 

To the south of Virginia arose the colony of Carolina, out of 



1 The territory now included within Vermont was claimed by both New York 
and New Hampshire in colonial times. Maine continued to be a part of Massa- 
chusetts until 1820 A.D. 



The Thirteen Colonies 



735 




The Exploration of North America by the Middle of the 
Seventeenth Century 



736 England and France in America 



New York 
and New 
Jersey 



a grant by Charles II to a number of nobles whose property had 
The been confiscated in the Great RebeUion. The 

Carohnas charter created a proprietary form of government 
similar to that of Maryland. It proved to be very unpopular, 
however, and in the eighteenth century the two Carolinas — ■ 
for they had now divided — voluntarily put themselves under 
the king's protection as royal colonies. 

The most important colonial achievement of the reign of 
Charles II was the filling up of the gap between the northern and 
southern colonies. In this central region English 
settlement began as the result of conquest from 
another European power. New York was originally 
New Netherland, a Dutch colony planted by the Dutch West 

India Company. In 1664 
A.D. the colony passed into 
the hands of the English. 
Charles II granted it to his 
brother James, duke of York 
and Albany, who afterwards 
became king of England. 
James, in turn, bestowed 
the region between the 
Hudson and Delaware rivers 
to two court favorites, and 
it received the name of New 
Jersey. The English pos- 
sessions now stretched 
without a break along the 
whole Atlantic coast from 
Nova Scotia to Florida. 
The colony of Pennsylvania likewise dated from the time of 
Charles II, who granted it to William Penn, the Quaker, as an 
asylum for his sect. Penn was made proprietor, 
with much the same rights which Lord Baltimore 
possessed in Maryland. The small Swedish settle- 
ment on the Delaware had been established by the South 
Company of Sweden, under the auspices of Gustavus Adolphus, 




William Penn 

At the age of twenty-two. After the portrait 
attributed to Sir Peter Lely. 



Pennsylvania 
and Delaware 



The Thirteen Colonies 



737 



Georgia 



who hoped that it would become the "jewel of his kingdom." 
The Dutch soon annexed New Sweden, only to rehnquish it, 
together with their own colony, to the English. William Penn 
secured a grant of the Delaware country, but at the opening 

of the eighteenth 

T A brief Account oF the 

century it became 

a separate colony. 

The southernmost 
of the thirteen colo- 
nies was also the 
last to be settled. 
James Oglethorpe, a 
gallant 
Enghsh 

soldier, founded 
Georgia in 1733 a.d., 
partly as a mihtary 
outpost against the 
Spaniards, but 
chiefly as a resort 
for poor debtors. 
The colony received 
its name in honor 
of the reigning king, 
George II. 

In 1688 A.D., at 
the time of the 
" Glorious Revolu- 
tion," North Amer- 
ica contained 
nearly three hun- 
dred thousand sub- 
jects of England. By 1763 a.d., the year which marks the 
close of the colonial period and the beginning Population of 
of the Revolutionary epoch, the white population colonies 
of British North America had increased to a million and a 
quarter, or four-fold. Most of the people lived in the thirteen 



^;ot)mte of ^ennfjJl^jania. 

Lately Granted by the 

KING. 

Under the GREAT 

Seal of England, 
WILLIAM PENN 

AND HIS . 

Heirs and Affigns. 

Since (by the good Providence ot God, and the Favour of the King) a 
Country in vi*vri(4 is fillen to my Lor, 1 thought it not Iffs my 
Duty, then my Honcft Intertft, to give fomc pubhck notice of it to 
the World, that thofe of our own or other Nations, that are inclm'd 
ro Tranfport Theinrelves or families beyond the Seas, tnay find ano- 
ther Country added to their Choice; that if they (hall happen to like 
the Place, Conditions, and Government, (fo far as the prefcnt Infancy of thirgs 
w/lil allow us any profpeft) ihey may, if thty plejfe, fix with mc in the Pro^ 
Vince, hereafter dtfcribtd. 

I. The KING'S Title to thif Country before he granted it. 
It is the Jm Ctnt'ium, or Law of Nations, that what ever Wafle, or uncul- 
red Country, is the Difcovcry of my PrWi, it is the right of that P/ince that 
■was at the Charge of the D.'covery : Now this Prov'ine is a Member of that 
part of Amrica, which the King of EngtanJi Anceflors have been at the Charge 
' ~" E, and which chty aod he have taken greaC care to preferve anl 



of pircovering, 
Improve. 



1 1. William 



First Page of Penn's "Account of 
Pennsylvania" 

Reduced facsimile. 



738 England and France in America 



colonies, and only about one- third of them in 1763 a.d. had 
been born outside of America. 

Both New England' and the southern colonies were chiefly 
EngHsh in blood. Many immigrants also came from other 
Anglo-Saxon parts of the British Isles, especially the so-called 
expansion Scotch-Irish — really Englishmen who had settled 
in the Lowlands of Scotland and afterwards in northeastern 
Ireland. The emigrants from Continental Europe included 
French Huguenots, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,^ 
and Germans from the Rhenish Palatinate so devastated by 
Louis XIV. 2 The population of the middle colonies was far 
more mixed. Besides English and a sprinkling of Celtic Scotch 
and Irish, it comprised Dutch in New York, Swedes in Delaware, 
and Germans in Pennsylvania. But neither France, Holland, 
Sweden, nor Germany contributed largely to the settlement of 
the American colonies. To England alone, of all the European 
countries of the seventeenth century, do we trace our descent as 
a nation. 

253. The Transit of Civilization from England to 
America 

Almost everywhere in the colonies the English language 
prevailed, not, however, without quaint modifications of spelling 
Language and pronunciation introduced by emigrants from 
folk- different parts of England. Along with words the 

literature emigrants brought many proverbs and traditional 
sayings. Some of them were afterwards printed by Benjamin 
Franklin in Poor Richard^ s Almanac. Old ballads, once sung 
in medieval England, were chanted in colonial America. Old 
fairy tales and nursery rhymes, which had delighted generations 
of English children, found equally appreciative audiences in 
the American wilderness. All these varieties of folk-literature 
were not at first written down, but were carried in the memory 
by young and old. 

Nearly all the popular festivals of the colonists came from 
England. The only important exception was Thanksgiving 

1 See page 696. 2 gee page 700. 



English Civilization in America 



739 



Day, which the Pilgrims began to celebrate immediately 
after their first harvest. Many superstitions of pop^iar 
the Middle Ages, including those relating to festivals and 



demons, and magic, ^^^^^'^^ons 
the New World. The belief in 



Religion 



Poor Richard, 1 733, 



A N 



Almanack 

For the Year of Chrift 

I 



733 



astrology, unlucky days, 
crossed the Atlantic to 
witchcraft was very com- 
mon, and at Salem, 
Massachusetts, in 1692 
A.D. twenty persons suf- 
fered death for this sup- 
posed crime. Witchcraft 
persecutions also occurred 
in several other colonies. 

Almost every variety of 
Protestantism was repre- 
sented in the colonies. 
The Church of England 
from the start had its 
strongholds 
in Virginia, 

Maryland, and the Caro- 
linas, and later in New 
York. After the Revolu- 
tionary War it took the 
name of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church, but 
retained nearly all the 
Anglican doctrines and 
ceremonies. Puritanism 
flourished especially in 
Massachusetts and Con- 
necticut. The Puritans' 
churches usually had the 

Congregational ^ form. Baptists were numerous 
Island and Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 
the Scotch-Irish settled, they established Presbyterian churches. 
1 See page 664, note i. 



Being the Firft after LEAP YEAR: 

And makes finct the Creatim Years 

By the Account of the Eaftcm Creeks 7241 

By the Latin Church, when G em, f <J932 

By the Computation of IV.IV jj^a 

8y the Roman Cffronology 5^82 

By the Jev/'rlb Rabbies y^y^ 

Wherein is contained 
The Lunations, Eclipfes» Judgment of 

the Weather, Spring Tides, Planets Motions & 
mutual AfpeSs, Sun and Moon's Rifing and Set- 
ting, Length of Days, Time of High Water, 
Fairs, Courts-, and obfcrvable Days 
Fitted to the Latitude of Forty Degrees, 
and a Meridian of Five Hours Weft from Lcndon, 
but may without fenfiSlc Error, ferve alJ the ad- 
jacent Places^ even from Netvfotaidland to Sbmb' 
Carol'ma. 



By KICHJRD SJUNDBRSyVhilom, 



PHILADELPHIA: 
Printed end fo!d by B. FRANKL/N^ at the New 
Prin ting Officr near the Market. 

The Third IiRprcOion. . 

A Title-page of Poor Richard's 
Almanac 

Reduced facsimile 



in Rhode 
Wherever 



740 



England and France in America 



Religious intolerance, which drove the Puritans to Massa- 
chusetts, continued to thrive in their midst. They had gone 
Separation of ^^^^ wilderness to found a religious com- 
church and munity of their own; and they wished to keep it 
Puritan. Anglicans and Roman Catholics, Bap- 
tists and Quakers, were long excluded from Massachusetts. 
When Roger Williams, preaching absolute freedom of con- 
science, came to the colony, he encountered only opposition and 
had to take refuge among the Indians south of the Massa- 
chusetts line. He here established Providence Plantation, 
later to become Rhode Island (1636 a.d.). The new settle- 
ment formed an asylum for those whom the Puritan colo- 
nists persecuted. In it both Christians and non-Christians 
enjoyed the same privileges as citizens. The principle of 
the separation of church and state, thus early expressed by 
Roger Williams, was afterwards written into the American 
Constitution. 

The Toleration Act of 1689 a.d.^ commended itself to the 
colonists, most of whom were Dissenters or Nonconformists. ^ 
Religious It was generally reenacted by the colonial assem- 
toleration blies, including those of Massachusetts, New York, 
and Virginia. Religious toleration, however, did not extend 
to Roman Catholics, who encountered much jealousy and suspi- 
cion. Rhode Island in the eighteenth century turned back 
from the noble ideas of Roger Williams and disfranchised Roman 
Catholics. Maryland began with a broad measure of toleration, 
for Lord Baltimore had opened the colony to Anglicans and 
Puritans, as well as Roman Cathohcs. Later, when the Protes- 
tants became a majority in Maryland, severe anti-Catholic 
laws were passed. Even liberal Pennsylvania did not allow 
Roman Catholics to share in the government, though no re- 
pressive legislation was directed against them. Outside of that 
colony they were under many disabilities until after the Revolu- 
tion. Jews were never very numerous in colonial America. 
They enjoyed freedom of worship, but did not possess political 
rights. 

^ See page 721. 2 See page 718. 



English Civilization in America 741 



The Puritan clergy were generally well educated; and some of 
them were very learned. They introduced into the New 
World the English tradition in favor of higher Higher 
education. Harvard College opened its doors as education 
early as 1636 a.d. and Yale, Harvard's present rival, started in 
1700 A.D. Before ^mwm^tmBt^ 



u 



the end of the colo- 
nial period other 
colleges or universi- 
ties existed in New 
York (King's, later 
Columbia), New 
Jersey (Princeton), 
Pennsylvania, and 
Virginia (William 
and Mary 1). These 
institutions devoted 
themselves chiefly 
to the training of 
ministers of one 
faith or another. 
Latin schools and 
academies were also 
founded, especially 
in New England, 
to prepare students 
for college. 

New England led the other colonies in providing for popular 
education. Every town in Massachusetts and Connecticut had 
to support a school where children could learn Common 
to read and write. Parents were expected to pay schools 
the teachers, whenever possible, but even poor children could 
obtain the rudiments of an education. The Puritans were the 
first to recognize that common schools are the pillars of democ- 
racy. The middle and southern colonies did not have a system 
of popular education. A Virginia governor could even thank 

1 Named after King William III and his queen. 



Titfte eutslown aU 
Both great and fmall^ 



Made David Tcck Ms 
Life. 

WhaUf !n the Sea 
God*s Voice obey. 



Xsrxes the grcak 
die, 

And fo fniilt you & h 

Touib forward flips 
Death fooneil -oips, 

Zacbeus he 

rid climb tfi€ Tree 

Hi* Lord to fee, 



A Page from the "New England Primer' 




742 England and France in America 



God that there were no free schools or printing in the colony. 
Learning, he beheved, bred heresies, and the printing press 
spread them. The fact that in the South education was for the 
few and not for the many reflected the aristocratic conditions 
that prevailed there. 

254. Economic Development of the Colonies 

Farming was the chief occupation in colonial times. The 
colonists not only fed themselves, but also exported large 
Colonial quantities of wheat, rice, tobacco, indigo, and other 
agriculture products to the West Indies and the mother coun- 
try. Many vegetables and fruits known in Europe early made 
their way to America, but did not displace the native potato 
in importance. The clearing of the land for agriculture led to 
a large export of lumber in the shape of boards, shingles, masts, 
and spars, and to the production of naval stores, such as tar, 
pitch, and turpentine. Cattle raising was carried on to a 
considerable extent, especially in the South. New England 
found a source of wealth in its fisheries of cod, mackerel, and 
whale, while all the colonies enjoyed a very profitable trade in 
furs. 

Geographic and climatic conditions largely account for the 
different systems of land holding in colonial America. New 
Land holding England, SO mountainous, so ill-provided with 
in New navigable rivers and good harbors, with a sterile 

England ^^-j ^ harsh climate, naturally became a region 
of small farms and diversified crops. The circumstances of its 
colonization also helped to produce this result. The New 
Englanders settled in agricultural villages hke those of the old 
England from which they came.^ Meadow, forest, and waste 
remained the common possession of the villagers, but each man 
received a share of the arable land to own and cultivate himself. 
In order to prevent the growth of large estates, the practice of 
primogeniture ^ WcLS forbidden. This system of land tenure 
fostered a democratic spirit in New England. 

Small farming and individual ownership of the land generally 

1 See page 434. 2 See page 417 and note i. 



Economic Development of the Colonies 743 



prevailed in the middle colonies. In New York, however, there 
were extensive estates on the Hudson, originally Land holding 
granted to the Dutch colonists and by them sub- and^so^them 
divided and rented out to tenant farmers. No colonies 
aristocrats in America so nearly resembled the feudal nobility 
of the Old World as these Dutch proprietors, or patroons. 
Virginia and Maryland, with their great bays and rivers, wide 
stretches of fertile land, and genial climate, proved to be well 
adapted to tobacco farming on a large scale. The colonists 
settled, not in compact villages, but in private plantations along 
the banks of the rivers. As time went on, the size of the plan- 
tations steadily increased and rose as high as twenty thousand 
acres. They were cultivated by white servants and negro 
slaves, neither of whom had any rights in the soil. The outcome 
of these conditions was social inequality and the growth of an 
aristocratic class of planters. A similar aristocracy grew up in 
the Carolinas and Georgia, where rice and indigo competed with 
tobacco as staple crops. 

The exploitation of a vast and undeveloped continent created 
a keen demand for unskilled labor. Laborers were few and 
wages were high. On New England farms and White 
those in the middle colonies the work was largely servants 
performed by the owner and the members of his family, some- 
times with the assistance of hired "help." Indentured ^ white 
servants also formed an important element in many colonies, 
particularly in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. Of 
these, some were voluntary servants, or "redemptioners," who 
sold their services for a limited term, usually five years, to pay 
their expenses to America. After receiving freedom, they often 
acquired farms of their own and became respected members of 
society. The involuntary servants included criminals, vagrants, 
and kidnapped children, who were transported from England 
by the shipload. The prevalence of negro slavery in the South 
made it difficult for indentured servants to find profitable and 
honorable employment after the expiration of their term of 

1 An indenture is a contract by which an apprentice is bound to a master, or a 
servant to service in a colony. 



744 



England and France in America 



service. They gradually formed the class of "poor whites," 
or, as the negro dubbed them, "mean white trash." 

The first negroes arrived in 1619 a.d. — a fateful date in 
American history — from a Dutch ship which touched at James- 
Negro town. Thus began the African slave trade, which 
slavery carried on for nearly two hundred years. 
Slaves were brought from the West Indies and afterwards direct 



This Indenture Made the^^^^^Day of%^cy 

in the Yea^ oroiTR Lord one thoufand, fevcn hundred and ^-o^^A'^^/^^^ETWE^N 
/^>^^^^^^X^-^<^^'^i^ of the gne Part. 



and 



flTIe olher Part, 



WITNESSE'f H, tha/ the faid^^^^^^^A^l^^i**^^ doth hereby covenant, promifc 

and grant, to and with the idL\d^dnr% (^co^Acy /t^.^ Executors, 

Adminiftrat^a^nd Afligivs^ from the Pay of the Date hereof until the firft and next 
Arrival at ^%e^'A-f<it^^^^A c^<^ —-in America, and after for and during the Term 

of s^zcjs. Years tp ferve in fuch Service and Employment ae the laid 

p'^a^^^c^\/)c'L,^/uc/ or Aji> Afligns fhall there employ -/^le>^cordmg tp the 

Q^Qxn of the Country ia the like Kind. In Confideration whereof the laid(i^^^ 

^^^^i^t^*^^/ - doth hereby covenartt and grant to and with the {aiji6.j^cia/^ 

^^2)ta^-^ to p3-y for /^^/f'aflage, and to find allowX^^Meat, Drink, Apparel 
and Lodging, with other Necefiaries, during the laidTerm j and at the End of the laid 
Term to pay unto the ufual Allowance, according to the Cuftom of the Country 
in the like Kind. IN WITNESS whereof the Parties above-tneniioned to ihefe 
Indentures have interchangeably put their Hands and Seals, the Day and Year £rft 
above written. _^ ^ 

Signed, Sealed, and Delivered. ~/Bj^^^ 



fence of 




A Redemptioner's Indenture 



from Africa. In 1763 a.d. they numbered about four hundred 
thousand, of whom three-fourths lived in the colonies south of 
Maryland. Slaves were least numerous in New England, not 
because of any widespread moral sentiment against keeping 
them, but simply because New England had no plantations of 
tobacco, rice, and cotton on which their labor could be profitably 
employed. Slaves did not make good farmers or seamen. 
They were equally inefficient as traders or artisans. 

The contrasts between North and South in systems of land 
tenure and labor make it easy to understand why Maryland, 



Economic Development of the Colonies 745 



New-Tori, THIS Bill shall 
paf5 f^^rc/z^ IpsT FOR.' FIVE 'W/J^ 
POUNDS, m New York.^ 
tlie Second Dav of April , OneV 
Thoufand Seven Hundred a)7d Fifty ( ^ ' 




Virginia and the Carolinas remained chiefly agricultural dur- 
ing the colonial era, while Pennsylvania, New York, Colonial 
and Massachusetts developed both manufactures ^^^^^^actures 
and commerce. There were many household commerce 
industries, including those of nails and other small articles of 
iron, pottery, wooden implements, shoes, and coarse textiles. 
The distillation 
of molasses into 
rum, much of 
which was sent 
to West Africa 
in exchange for 
slaves, formed 
a profitable 
business. Ship- 



building became i^!^^^r^:^^^Q:^4^^j:^^^^l^ 

a very impor- ^^^^ yoek Colonl\l Paper Money 

tant industry in 

New England. That section also had an extensive commerce 
with other colonies, the West Indies, and Europe. 

The development of manufactures in the colonies was retarded 
by lack of capital and credit, scarcity of labor, high wages, and 
the greater profits often to be gained from agri- Restrictions 
culture, lumbering, and the fisheries. Further- on colonial 
more, the English government, following the prin- 
ciples of the mercantile system, imposed various restrictions on 
colonial manufactures. Thus, it prohibited the exportation 
of woolen goods and beaver hats, not only to England, but also 
from one colony to another, and forbade the colonists to set up 
iron or steel mills. Such restrictions protected English manu- 
facturers against competition and gave them a monopoly of the 
colonial markets. 

The English government also interfered with the commerce 
of the colonies. As early as 1651 a.d. the "Rump Restrictions 
Parliament" passed the first Navigation Act, which on colonial 
prohibited the importation into England of goods 
from Asia, Africa, or America, except in English or colonial 



746 



England and France in America 



ships. The act was intended to deprive the Dutch of the 
carrying trade between England and other countries. A subse- 
quent act provided that tobacco and certain other "enumerated 
goods" should be exported from the colonies direct to England. 
Still another act required that all imports to the colonies must 
come through England. The colonists put up with this legis- 
lation for many years, partly because it was not well enforced 
and partly because they needed the help of England against the 
French. After the conquest of Canada had freed them from 
the danger of foreign domination, they began that resistance 
to the measures of Parliament and George III which ended in 
the Revolution. 

255. Political Development of the Colonies 

All the colonists possessed the private rights which English- 
men had won during centuries of struggle against despotic 
The private kings. Free speech, freedom from arbitrary im- 
rights of prisonment as secured by the writ of habeas 
Englishmen corpus, and trial by jury formed part of our legal 
inheritance from England. These and other private rights were 
embodied in the Common law,^ as introduced into colonial 
America. At 'the time of the Revolution the Common law 
was adopted by the several states, thus becoming the foundation 
of our own system of jurisprudence. 

The English principle of representation was also carried to 
the New World. Each colony had a representative assembly 
Representa- modeled after the House of Commons. Virginia 
tive early led the way. The Puritans, who had gained 

asserabhes control of the London Company, permitted the 
Virginia colonists to form an assembly consisting of two deputies 
freely elected by the inhabitants of each settlement. The 
House of Burgesses, as it soon came to be called, met for the 
first time in 1619 a.d., in the chancel of the little church at 
Jamestown. A few years later (1634 a.d.) the freemen of each 
Massachusetts town were allowed to send two deputies to act 
for them at the General Court of the colony. New York, which 

1 See page 502. 



Political Development of the Colonies 747 



had been a Dutch possession, was the last of the colonists to 
receive representative self-government (1684 a.d.). 

The assembUes of Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and 
the other colonies were more truly representative of the great 
body of the people than was the Enghsh ParUament franch'se 
of the period. In England a small number of 
persons — ■ nobles, country squires, and rich merchants — con- 
trolled elections to the House of Commons.^ In the colonics, 
on the other hand, all free adult white men, who owned a 
moderate amount of property, usually had the right to vote. 
Religious qualifications, limiting the franchise to Protestants, 
also existed in some of the colonies. 

The separation of Parliament into ■ two houses, which had 
prevailed in England since the fourteenth century,^ accustomed 
the colonists to the bicameral system. In all but 
two of the colonies the legislature consisted of a cameral 
representative assembly, forming a lower house, ^^^^^"^ 
and a small council, forming an upper house.-^ The council 
assisted the governor and had some power of amending the acts 
of the assembly. 

The governor served as the link between the colonists and 
England. In Rhode Island and Connecticut he was elected 
by the people; in Maryland and Pennsylvania^ The 
he was appointed by the hereditary proprietor; governor 
and in the other (royal) colonies he was named by the king. 
The governor might veto the bills passed by a colonial legislature. 
Just as quarrels between king and Parliament were frequent in 
England, so in colonial America there was constant wrangHng 
between governor and assembly, especially over money matters. 
The assembly held the purse-strings, however, and usually 
triumphed by refusing to grant supplies until the governor came 
to its terms. 

The unit of representation in the assemblies of the southern 

1 See page 721. 

2 See page 507. 

3 Pennsylvania and Georgia did not adopt the two-house arrangement until after 
the Revolution. 

* Delaware had the same governor as Pennsylvania. 



748 



England and France in America 



colonies was the county, corresponding to the Enghsh shire. 
The southern The county also formed a judicial area. Justices 
county Qf ^Yie peace, chosen from the more important 

landowners of the county, met regularly as a court to try cases 
and assess taxes. The governor appointed the justices of the 
peace, as well as the sheriff, who executed their judgments. 
This system of local government tended to concentrate power 
in the hands of a few members of the aristocracy. It developed 

naturally from the large size of 
southern plantations, the absence 
of town life, and the social barriers 
between country gentry and ''poor 
whites." 

A much more democratic sys- 
tem of local government grew up 
in New England, 
where the colonists 




Join or Die 



settled in compact 



The New 
England 
town 



A device printed in Franklin's news- 
paper, the "Pennsylvania Gazette." 
Shows a wriggling rattlesnake cut into COmmUuiticS and whcrC claSS dis- 
pieces, with the initial letter of a col- .^ i , • i i 

ony on each piece. tlUCtlOUS, thoUgh notlCCable, WCre 

not extreme. The citizens of a 
New England town, or township, governed themselves 
directly and sent their own representatives to the colonial 
assemblies. In frequent town meetings they discussed all 
local affairs, made appropriations for all local expenses, and 
chose the town officials. The titles of these officials, as well as 
their functions, were often borrowed from the mother-land, 
showing that the colonists reproduced on American soil the 
characteristic features of old English town government. 

The middle colonies, which included compact settlements 
as well as large agricultural areas, adopted a mixture of the new 
Mixed town England and southern systems. Here both town 
and county and county were found, each with its elective 
government ofQcers. This mixed system now prevails in per- 
haps most of the American states. 

No close political ties united the colonies. The differences 
jbetween them in industries, religion, manners, and customs 



French Settlements in North America 749 



prevented their effective cooperation. Yet preparations for 
union there had been, and signs of its coming. Disunion of 
As early as 1643 a.d. Massachusetts, Connecticut, colonists 
New Haven (then a separate colony), and Plymouth entered 
into a league "for mutual help and strength in all our future 
concernments." This league, known as the United Colonies 
of New England, held together for forty years. In 1754 a.d. 
delegates from seven colonies met in the Albany Congress and 
discussed Benjamin Franklin's plan for forming a defensive 
union of all the colonies. The plan fell through, but it set men 
to thinking about the advantages of federation. After the 
close of the French and Indian War in 1763 a.d., the colonists, 
who had learned the value of concerted action against a common 
foe, began to unite in defense of their rights against king and 
Parliament. 

256. French Settlements in North America 

At the opening of the seventeenth century the French had 
gained no foothold in the New World. For more than fifty 
years after the failure of Cartier's settlement,^ Lateness of 
they were so occupied with the Huguenot wars French 
that they gave little thought to colonial expansion. 
The single exception was the ill-starred colony which Admiral 
de Coligny^ attempted to establish in Florida (1564 a.d.). 
The Spaniards quickly destroyed it, not only because the settlers 
were Protestants, but also because a French settlement in 
Florida directly threatened their West Indian possessions. 
The growing weakness of Spain, together with the cessation 
of the religious struggle, made possible a renewal of the colo- 
nizing movement. The French again turned to the north, 
attracted by the fur trade and the fisheries, and founded 
Canada during the same decade that the English were found- 
ing Virginia. 

The first great name in Canadian history is that of Samuel 
de Champlain, who enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. In 

1 See pages 638-639. 

2 See page 680. 



750 



England and France in America 



Champlain a series of memorable expeditions Champlain ex- 
and Canada plored the coast of Maine and Massachusetts as 
far south as Plymouth, discovered the beautiful lake now called 
after him, traced the course of the St. Lawrence River, and also 
came upon lakes Ontario and Huron. In 1608 a.d. he set 
up a permanent French post at Quebec. Three years later he 
founded Montreal. Champlain served as the first governor 
of Canada and until his death labored unceasingly to develop 
the new colony. 

The seventeenth century was an era of missionary zeal in the 
Roman Catholic Church, and Canada became the favorite 
Jesuit mission field. Champlain brought in the Fran- 

missions in ciscans, who were followed in greater numbers by 
Canada ^-^^ Jesuits. The story of the Jesuits in North 

America is an inspiring record of self-sacrifice and devotion. 
Many of them suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Indians. 
The journeys made by the Jesuits in the wilderness of the 
Northwest added much to geographical knowledge, while their 
mission stations often grew into flourishing towns. After 
Cardinal Richelieu had forbidden the Protestants to settle in 
Canada, the Jesuit influence there became dominant and has 
not yet entirely disappeared, in spite of a century and a half of 
English rule. 

When Colbert, the great minister of Louis XIV, came to power, 
the exploration of Canada went on with renewed energy. Hither- 
La Salle and to the French had been spurred by the hope of 
Louisiana finding in the Great Lakes a western passage to 
Cathay. Joliet, the fur trader, and Marquette, the Jesuit mis- 
sionary, believed they had actually found the highway uniting 
the Atlantic and the Pacific when their birch-bark canoes 
first glided into the upper Mississippi. It was reserved for the 
most illustrious of French explorers, Robert de La Salle, to dis- 
cover the true character of the "Father of Waters" and to 
perform the feat of descending it to the sea (1682 a.d.). He took 
possession of all the territory drained by the Mississippi for 
Louis XIV, naming it Louisiana. 

Where La Salle had shown the way, missionaries, fur-traders, 



French Settlements in North America 751 




La Salle's Explorations 



hunters, and adventurers quickly followed. The French now 
began to realize the importance of the Mississippi prance 
valley, which time was to prove the most extensive 
fertile area in the world. Efforts were made to occupy it and 
to connect it with Canada by a chain of forts reaching from 
Quebec and Montreal on the St. Lawrence to New Orleans ^ 



1 Founded in 1718 a.d. and named after the Due de Orleans, who was regent of 
France during the minority of Louis XV. See page 702, note 2. 



752 England and France in America 



at the mouth of the Mississippi. All of the continent west 
of the Alleghenies was to become a New France, a Roman 
Catholic and despotic empire after the pattern of the mother 
country. 

However audacious this design, it seemed not impossible of 
fulfilment. New France, a single royal province under one 
Strength and i^i^itary governor, offered a united front to the 
weakness of divided EngHsh colonies. The population, though 
New France gj^g^jj compared with the number of the English 
colonists, consisted mostly of men of military age, good fighters 
and aided by numerous Indian allies. But lack of home support 
offset these real advantages. At the very time when the French 
were contending for colonial supremacy they were constantly at 
war in Europe. They wasted on European battlefields the 
resources which might otherwise have been expended in America. 
The failure of France to become "a world-power must be as- 
cribed, therefore, chiefly to the mistaken policy and bad 
government of Louis XIV and Louis XV. 

257. The Rivalry of France and England in 

North America 

The struggle between France and England began, both in the 
Old World and the New, in 1689 a.d., when the "Glorious 
A new Revolution" drove out James II and placed William 

Hundred of Orange on the English throne as William III. 
Years' War ^j^^ Dutch and English, who had previously been 
enemies, now became friends and united in resistance to Louis 
XIV. The French king not only threatened the Dutch, but 
also incensed the English by receiving the fugitive James and 
aiding him to win back his crown. England at once joined a 
coalition of the states of Europe against France. This was the 
beginning of a new Hundred Years' War between the two 
countries.^ The struggle extended beyond the Continent, for 

1 War of the League of Augsburg, 1689-1697 a.d. ( " King William's War "). 
War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713 a.d. ("Queen Anne's War"). 
War of the Austrian Succession, 1 740-1 748 a.d. 
Seven Years' War, 1756-1763 a.d. 
War of the American Revolution, 1776-1783 a.d. 



Rivalry of France and England in America 753 



95'' 90° 85° 80^ 75^ 7U" 65^ 60^ 55° 




North America after The Peace of Utrecht, 17 13 A.D. 



each of the rivals tried to destroy the commerce and annex 
the colonies of the other. 

The first period of conflict closed in 17 13 a.d., with the Peace 
of Utrecht, which was as important in the history of colonial 
America as in the history of Europe. England Provisions of 
secured Newfoundland, Acadia (rechristened Nova utrecht!^^ 
Scotia), and the extensive region drained by the 1713 A.D. 
rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. France, however, kept the 
best part of her American territories and retained control of <^he 
St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. The possession of these two 
waterways gave her a strong strategic position in the interior 
of the continent. 



754 



England and France in America 




Montcalm 

After the portrait in possession of the 
present Marquis of Montcalm, Chateau 
d'Aveze, France. 



The two great European wars which came between 1740- 
1763 A.D. were naturally reflected in the New World. The 

first, known in American history 
"King as "King George's 

George's ^ved to be 

War" and the ^ 
"French and indecisive. The 
Indian War" second, similarly 
known as the "French and In- 
dian War," resulted in the expul- 
sion of the French from North 
America. It began as a contest 
for the Ohio Valley. The French 
wanted it in order to join 
Canada and Louisiana; the Eng- 
lish also wanted it, in order not 
to be shut out from the fertile 
region immediately west of the 
Alleghenies. France had no re- 
sources to cope with those of 
England in America, and the EngHsh command of the sea 
proved decisive. One French post after another was captured: 
Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, commanding the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence; Fort Duquesne,^ at the junction of the Allegheny 
and Ohio rivers; Fort Niagara, which guarded the route 
between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie; and Fort Ticonderoga 
between Lake George and Lake Champlain. In 1759 a.d. 
Wolfe defeated the gallant Montcalm under the walls of Quebec, 
and the fall of that stronghold quickly followed. A year later 
what remained of the French army surrendered at Montreal. 
The English flag was now raised over Canada, where it has 
flown ever since. 

The second period of conflict closed in 1763 a.d., with the 
Peace of Paris. According to its provisions France ceded to 
England all her North American possessions east of the Mis- 
sissippi, except two small islands kept for fishing purposes off 

1 Renamed Fort Pitt after William Pitt, the great prime minister of England; 
whence the modern Pittsburg. 



CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1755 
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 




CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1763 
AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

(ACCORDING TO PEACE OF PARIS) 



Rivalry of France and England in America 755 



the coast of Newfoundland. Spain, which had also been 

involved in the war, gave up Florida to England, receiving 

as compensation the French territories west of the Provisions of 
. . . ^-r „ 1 , the Peace of 

Mississippi. New France was now but a memory, p^g^ 

But modern Canada has two milhons of French- 1763 A.D. 
men, who still hold aloof from the English in language and 
religion, while Louisiana, now 
shrunk to the dimensions of an 
American state, still retains in 
its laws and many customs of 
its people the French tradition. 

The Peace of Paris marked 
a great turning point in the 
history of the thir- England and 
teen colonies. Re- the thirteen 
T 1 r colonies 

ueved of pressure 
from without and free to expand 
toward the west and south, they 
now felt less keenly their depen- 
dence on England. Close ties, 
the ties of common interests, 
common ideals, and a common 
origin, still attached them to the mother country; but these 
were soon to be rudely severed during the period of distur- 
bance, disorder, and violence which culminated in the Ameri- 
can Revolution. 




James Wolfe 

After the portrait by Schaak in the 
National Portrait Gallery, London. 



Studies 

I. On outline maps represent the division of North America (a) after the Peace 
of Utrecht, and {b) after the Peace of Paris. 2. Identify these dates in colonial 
history: 1713 a.d.; 1763 a.d.; 1620 A.D.; 1607 a.d.; and 1664 A.D. 3. State the 
basis of the claims of England, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden to territory in 
North America during the seventeenth century. 4. According to the mercantile 
theory what constituted a "favorable," and what an "unfavorable" balance of 
trade? 5. What seems to be the chief difference, in principle, between mercantilism 
and the modern protective policy? 6. How was the colonial policy based on mer- 
cantilism opposed to modern ideas of commercial freedom? 7. Why was the joint 
stock company a more successful method of fostering colonial trade than the regu- 
lated company? 8. "The breaking of Spain's naval power is an incident of the first 
importance in the history of the EngUsh colonies." Comment on this statement. 



756 



England and France in America 



p. Give reasons for the difficulties experienced by the first settlers of Jamestown 
and Plymouth. lo. Why has Archbishop Laud been called the "father of New 
England"? ii. Why was the acquisition of New Netherland an important step 
in the building up of colonial America? 12. Show how the Stuart kings fostered 
England's expansion in North America. 13. What colonies were founded by 
Roman Catholics, Cavaliers, Puritans, and Quakers? 14. What is meant by 
the "transit of civilization from England to America"? 15. Compare the 
social and industrial conditions in the South with those in New England during 
the colonial period. 16. Describe the various measures by which England tried 
to restrict colonial manufactures and trade. 17. "The history of the origin and 
development of the American nation is one chapter in the history of the development 
of English freedom." Comment on this statement. 18. Trace on the map (page 
751) the course of La Salle's explorations. 



APPENDIX 



TABLE OF EVENTS AND DATES 

(Specially important dates are in italics) 

The Middle Ages 

486 Clovis defeats the Romans at Soissons 

49 3~S 53 Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy ' 

4g6 Clovis accepts Christianity 

527-565 Justinian, Roman emperor in the East 

529 (?) Rule of St. Benedict 

568-774 Lombards in Italy 

590-604 Pontificate of Gregory the Great . 

597 Augustine's mission to the Anglo-Saxons 

610-641 HeracHus, Roman emperor in the East 

622 The Hegira 

632-661 The "Orthodox Caliphs" 

661-750 The Ommiad CaHphs 

711 Arabs and Berbers invade Spain 

716-717 Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs 

752 Battle of Tours 

750-1058 The Abbassid Caliphs 

768-814 Reign of Charlemagne 

800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans 

829 England united under Egbert 

843 Treaty of Verdun 

862 (?) Northmen under Ruric settle in Russia 
870 Treaty of Mersen 
871-901 (?) Reign of Alfred the Great 
911 Northmen settle in northwestern France (Normandy) 
g62 Otto the Great crowned Holy Roman Emperor 
982 Greenland discovered 
987-996 Reign of Hugh Capet 
988 Christianity introduced into Russia 
1000 (?) Vinland discovered 
10 1 6 England conquered by Canute 
1054 Final rupture of Greek and Roman churches 

757 



758 



Appendix 



1066 Battle of Hastings; Norman conquest of England 
1066-108 7 William I, the Conqueror, king of England 
1073-108 5 Pontificate of Gregory VII 
1077 Humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa 
1090-1153 St. Bernard 
1095-1291 The Crusades 

iop5 Council of Clermont 

1099 Capture of Jerusalem 

1147-1149 Second Crusade 

1 1 89- 1 192 Third Crusade 

1 202-1 204 Fourth Crusade; sack of Constantinople 
1 204-1 261 Latin Empire of Constantinople 
I2gi Fall of Acre; end of the crusades 

1 1 22 Concordat of Worms 

1 15 2-1 190 Reign of Frederick 1, Barbarossa 

1 1 54-1 189 Henry II, king of England 

1 180-1223 Philip II, Augustus, king of France 

1 18 1 (?)-i2 26 St. Francis of Assisi 

1 198-12 16 Pontificate of Innocent III 

1 206-1 2 27 Mongol conquests -under Jenghiz Khan 

121^ Magna Carta 

1 2 26-1 2 70 Louis IX, the Saint, king of France 

1230 Union of Leon and Castile 

1 237-1 240 Mongol conquest of Russia 

1 2 54- 1 2 73 The Interregnum 

1 26 1 Fall of Latin Empire of Constantinople 

1 271- 1295 Travels of Marco Polo 

1272- 1307 Edward I, king of England 

127 J Rudolf of Hapsburg becomes Holy Roman Emperor 

1285-1314 Philip IV, the Fair, king of France 

1 29 1 First Swiss Confederation 

1295 "Model Parliament" of Edward I 

1309-1377 "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy 

13 14 Battle of Bannockburn 

13 3 7-1 453 Hundred Years' War 

1346 Battle of Crecy 

1356 Battle of Poitiers 

1429 Joan of Arc appears 
1348-1349 Black Death in Europe 
1378-1417 The " Great Schism " 
1381 Peasants' Revolt in England 
1396 Greek first taught at Florence 
1405 Death of Timur the Lame 
1415 John Huss burned 



Appendix 



Transition to Modern Times 

14 j J Constantinople captured by the Ottoman Turks 
1455-1485 War of the Roses 

1461- 1483 Louis XI, king of France 

146 2- 1 5 05 Ivan III, the Great, tsar of Russia 
1476 Caxton's printing press set up in England 

1479 Castile and Aragon united under Ferdinand and Isabella 
1485-1509 Henry VII, king of England 
1488 Cape of Good Hope rounded by Diaz 
I4g2 America discovered by Columbus 
1497 North America rediscovered by John Cabot 
I4g8 Vasco da Gama reaches India 
1 5 13 Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa 
15 17-1555 Reformation in Germany 
1517 The Ninety-five Theses 

1520 Burning of the papal bull 

1 52 1 Edict of Worms 
1555 Peace of Augsburg 

1519-1521 Mexico conquered by Cortes 

1519-1522 Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe 

151 9- 1556 Reign of Charles V 

1531-1537 Peru conquered by Pizarro 

1 533-1 5 58 Reformation in England 

1534 Jesuit order founded by Loyola 

1545-1563 Council of Trent 

1556-1598 Reign of Philip II 

1 558-1 603 Elizabeth, queen of England 

1 5 68- 1 609 Revolt of the Netherlands 

1 5 71 Battle of Lepanto 

1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 

1579 Union of Utrecht 

ij88 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

1589-1610 Henry IV, king of France 

ijgS Edict of Nantes 

1600 English East India Company chartered 

1603-1625 Reign of James I 

i6oy Colonization of Virginia; Jamestown founded 

161 1 Authorized Version of the Bible 

1618-1648 , Thirty Years' War 

1620 Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth 

1625— 1649 Reign of Charles I 

1628 The Petition of Right 

1630-1640 Puritan exodus to Massachusetts 



760 



Appendix 



1640 Meeting of the Long Parliament 
1 64 2- 1 649 The Great Rebellion 
1643-1715 Louis XIV, king of France 

1648 Peace of Westphalia 

1649 Execution of Charles I 

1 649-1 660 The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 

1 65 1 First Navigation Act 

1660 Restoration of Charles II 

i688-i68g The "Glorious Revolution'^ 

1692 Salem witchcraft persecution 

1 702-1 713 War of the Spanish Succession 

17 1 3 Peace of U trecht 

1744-1748 " King George's War " 

1754-1763 French and Indian War " 

1763 Peace of Paris 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING 
VOCABULARY 



Note. — The pronunciation of most proper names is indicated either by a simplified 
spelling or by their accentuation and division into syllables. The diacritical marks em- 
ployed are those found iu Webster's New International Dictionary and are the following : 



a as in ale. 

a " " senate, 

a " " care, 

a " " am. 

a " " account, 

a " " arm. 

a " " ask. 

a " " sofd. 

e " " eve. 

e " " event, 

e " " end. 

e " " recent, 

e " " maker, 

i " " ice. 

1 " " ill. 



o as in old. 

6 " " obey. 

6 " " orb. 

6 " " odd. 

o " " soft. 

" " connect, 

u " " use. 

u " " unite, 

u " " urn. 

u " " iip. 

u " " circfts. 

ii " " menii. 
oo as in food. 

00 " " foot, 

ou" " out. 



oi as in oil. 
ch " " chair. 

g u u go_ 

ng " " sing. 

1] " " iqk. 

fh " " fhen. 

th " " tbin. 

tu " " nature. 

du " " verdure. 

K for ch as ni Ger. ich, ach. 

N as iu Fr. bon. 

y " " yet. 

zh for z as in azure. 



Aachen (a'Ken). See Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Ab-bas'ids, 3SU and note 2, 381. 
Abelard (Fr. pron. a-ba-lar'), Peter, 56T, 
6T1. 

Abraham, Hebrew patriarch, 367, 374. 

Absolutism, in France, under Louis XIV, 
669, 690, 692. 694; in England, under the 
Tudors and Stuarts. 703-708, 710, 720, 721. 

Abu Bekr (ii'boo bek"r), 372, 379. 

Abyssinia (ab-i-sin'i-a), 346, 347. 

Academy, French, 697. 

Acadia. See Nova Scotia. 

Acre (ii'ker), 475, 476, 479. 

Act of Supremacv, the, 660. 

Act of Uniformity, the, 718. 

A-dri-a-no'ple, 491. 

Africa, North, Vandal kingdom in, 330 ; con- 
quered by the Arabs, 378. 
Africa, Portuguese exploration of, 620, 621. 
A'gra, 488. 

Agriculture, Arab improvements in, 382; 

medieval, 433, 434 ; in England, during the 

seventeenth century, 723 ; in the thirteen 

colonies, 742, 743. 
"Aids," the feudal, 418. 
Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-pel'), 310, 314 

402. ' 



Al-a-man'ni, the, 303, 304. 
Alaska, 367, 630. 
Al-ba'ni-a, 493. 
Albany Congress, the, 749. 
Albi, 648. 

Albigenses (al-bi-ien'sez), a heretical sect, 
452, 648. 

Albuquerque (ul-b(j6-ker'ke), 622, 623. 
Alchemy, 574. 
Alcuin (jxl'kwin), 310. 
Aldine press, the, 595, 596. 
Aldus Manutius (al'dws md-nii'shi-Ms), 595. 
Aleutian (rt-lii'shan) Islands, 630. 
Alexander HI, pope, 461 ; VI, 628. 
Alexius (a-lek's]-2/s) I, lioman emperor in 

the East, 469, 470. 
Alfred the Great, king of England, 404, 406, 

407. 

Algebra, 385. 
Al-ham'bra, the, 386. 
A'li, fourth caliph, 379, 
Allah (al'a), 369. 
Alphabet. Runic, 390, 391. 
Alsace (al-siis'), 303, 314, 685, 698. 
Alva,- duke of, 672. 
Amazon liiver, 635. 

America, the Northmen in, 399 ; discovered 
)I 



762 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



by Columbus, 62T ; naming of, 628 ; peo- 
pling of, in prehistoric times, 630 ; the In- 
dians, 630-633 ; Spanish explorations and 
conquests in, 633-635 ; the Spanish colonial 
empire in. 635-638 ; EngUsh and French 
explorations in, 63S, 639 ; motives for coloni- 
zation of, 726 ; English settlement of Virginia 
and Massachusetts, 728-734; the thirteen 
colonies, 734-738; French settlements in, 
749-752 ; rivalry of France and England in, 
752—754 

Amsterdam, 640, 671, 699. 

Amusements, in the feudal castle, 428 ; medi- 
eval, 579, 580. See also Festivals. 

Anagni (ti-nan'ye), humiliation of Boniface 
VIII at, 644. 

Andes Mountains, 632. 

An'ge-vin dynasty, the, 500, note 1. 

Angles (an'g'ls). See Anglo-Saxons. 

Anglicanism, establishment of, in England, 
658-661; organization and doctrines, 663, 664 ; 
in England, during the seve'nteenth century, 
704, 705, 707, 70S, 712, 714, 718, 720 ; in the 
thirteen colonies, 739, 740. 

An'glo-Sax'ons, the, conquer Britain, 319, 
320 ; their kingdoms in Britain, 320 ; their 
culture, 322 ; converted to Eoman Chris- 
tianity, 322, 323, 358 ; language of the, 556. 

Animals, baiting of, 580, 718. 

Anjou (aN-zho5'), 500, note 1, 519; Philip of, 
700. 

Anne of Bohemia, 650. 
Anne, Queen, 701. 
An-til'les, the Greater, 634. 
Antioch (an'ti-6k), 471, 540. 
Antwerp, 552, 640. 
Apostles, the, 442. 
Apprentices in guilds, 536, 537. 
April Fool's Day, 581. 

Aquinas (rt-kwi'nas), St. Thomas, 572, 667. 

Aquitaine (ak'wi-tan), 512. 

"Arabesques," 386. 

Arabia, physical features of, 367, 

Arabian Nights, the. See Thousand and 
One Nights. 

Ar'abs, the, as foes of the Roman Empire in 
the East, 333, 376, 377 ; migratory and sed- 
entary, 367, 369 ; under Mohammed, 371, 
372 ; their conquests, 375-379 ; civilization 
of, 381-386, 590, 594. See also Moslems. 

Aragon (a-ra-gon'), 520. 

Arch, the round, 563, 564, 597 ; the pointed, 
386, 564, 565. 

Archbishop, church official, 342, 448. 

Architecture, Byzantine, 336, 337 ; Arab, 385, 
386; medieval, 562-566 ; Eenaissance, 597, 
601; in France and England during the 
seventeenth century, 696, 724. 

Arctic Ocean, 399. 

Arian heresy, the, accepted by the Germanic 
invaders, 300, 302, 304, 305, 326, 358. 

Aristotle (ar'is-tot'l), Greek philosopher, 383, 
571, 572, 573, 591, 592, 609, 626. 

Arithmetic, 385, 566. 

" Armada (ar-ma'dft), Invincible," the, 674, 
678 and note 1 ; 679, 725, 728. 
Armenia, 377. 
Armor, medieval, 422. 

Army, the feudal, 422 ; of Louis XIV, 698 ; 
Cromwell's, 712. 
Arno River, 544. 

Art, Byzantine, 336, 337; Arab, 385, 386; 
Eenaissance, 597-599, 601 ; French, under 



Louis XIV, 696; in England, during the 
seventeenth century, 724. See also Archi- 
tecture, Painting, Sculpture. 

Arthur, King, myth of, 560, 561, 624, 625. 

Artisans in the Middle Ages, 535-537. See 
also Guilds. 

Artois (ar-twii'), 698. 

As'gard, 394. 

Asia, medieval explorations in, 616, 618 ; 
European influence on, 623. 

Asia Minor, 322, 468. 

Assisi (iis-se'zc), 451. 

Astrolabe, the, 618. 

Astrology in the Middle Ages, 574. 

Astronomy, Arab, 385 ; medieval, 574 ; dur- 
ing the Renaissance, 607, 608, 609. 

Atlantic Ocean, 624, 625, 628. 

At-lan'tis, myth of, 624. 

Attila the Hun, 350, 561. 

Augsburg (ouks'bd&rK), city, 548 ; Peace of, 
656, 668, 682. 

Au-gus'tine, missionary to the Anglo-Saxons, 
322 328 359 

Austria, 'rise of, 316, 462, 522; growth of, 
under the Hapsburgs, 522 ; Switzerland and, 
523, 524 ; in the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession, 701. 

Av'a-lon, 624, 625. 

A'vars, the, 309, 314, 334. 

Avignon (a-ven-yoN'), residence of the popes 
at, 645. 

Azores («-z6rz') Islands, 620, 628. 
Aztec Indians, the, 632, 633. 

Ba'ber, 488. 

" Babylonian Captivity " of the Church, the, 
645. 

Bacon, Roger, 573, 574, 624 ; Sir Francis, 609, 
724. 

Bagdad (bag-dad'), capital of the Abbasid 
caliphate, 381, 385; as a commercial center, 
383, 540 ; sacked by the Mongols, 485. 

Ba-ha'ma Islands, 627 and note 1. 

Balance of power, the, principle of, 697, 698. 

Balboa (bal-bo'a), Vasco Nunez de, 684. 

Balder, myth of, 395. 

Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 470. 

Balkan peninsula, 335, 493. 

Ball, John, 611, 612, 619, 620. 

Baltic Sea, 389, 390, 548, 549, 640, 684, 685. 

Baltimore, Lord, 734, 736, 740. 

Banking in the Middle Ages, 542, 543, 545. 

Ban'nock-burn, battle of, 511. 

Baptists, the, 718, 739, 740. 

Basel (ba'zel), 600. 

Basihcas, Roman, 344, 562, 563. 

Baths, medieval, 586. 

Bavaria, 315, note 1, 316, 522. 

Bayeux (ba-yu') Tapestry, 408, 586. 

Beards, wearing of, in the Middle Ages, 
586. 

Beck'et, Thomas, 442. 

Bed'ou-ins, the, 867, 369. 

Behaim (ba'him), Martin, 625, 626. 

Belgium, 305, 314, 549, 552, note 1, 671, 673. 

Bel-i-sa'ri-us, Roman general, 380. 

Bellman, a London, 722. 

" Benefit of clergy," 444, 445. 

Ber'bers. the, 378. 

Bergen (ber'gen), 548. 

Berlin, 696. 

Bertha, queen of Kent, 322 
Beth'le-hem, 472. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Bible, the, Authorized Yersion of, T24 and 
note 2. 

Biblical translations, 600, 601, 649, 653, 65T, 
724 and note 2. 

Bicameral system, the, in England, 507 ; in 
the thirteen colonies, 747. 
Bill of Rights, the, 720, 721. 
Bills of exchange, introduction of, 543. 
Bishop, church official, 447, 44S, 
Bishop of Eome. See Pope. 
"Black Death," the, 610, 611. 
" Black Prince," the, 517, 519 and note 2. 
Black Sea, 540. 

Blenheim (blen'im), battle of, 701. 

Boccaccio (bok-ka'cho), 593. 

Bohemia, 809, 360, 522, 509, 650, 683. 

Bo'he-mond, 470. 

Bokhara (bo-Ka'ra), 485. 

Boleyn (ba^l'in), Anne, 659, 661, 675. 

Bolivia, 632. 

Bologna (bo-lon'ya), university of, 567, 568, 
570. 

Bon'i-face VIII, pope, 643-645. 
Bookkeeping by double-entry, 543. 
Book of Common Prayer, the, 601, 705, 712, 
718. 

Bordeaux (bor-do'), 645. 
Bos'po-rus, the, 338. 

Bossuet (bo-sii-e'), on the divine right of 

kings, 689 and note 2. 
Boston, English city, 538. 
Both'ni-a, gulf of, 389, 400. 
Bourbon dynasty, the, 681, 700, 701. 
Bourgeoisie (boor-zhwa-ze'), the, 531 and 

note 2, 680. 
Boyle, 723. 

Brandenburg (bran'den-b(5&rK), 315, 525, 
526, 685, 702. 

Brazil, 622, 623, note 1, 628, note 2, 635. 
Bremen (bra'men), 549. 
" Bridge of Sighs," the,'547. 
Bristol, 638. 

Britain, overrun by the Jutes, Angles, and 
Saxons, 319 ; nature of the Anglo-Saxon 
conquest, 319, 322. 

British Isles,Christianity in the, 322-325, 359 ; 
unification of, under Enghsh kings, 507-511. 
Brit'ta-ny, 512, 519. 
Bronze, 390, 631. 
Bruce, Eobert, 511. 

Bruges (Fr. pron. bruzh), as a commercial 
center, 540, 548, 550, 551, 552, 640 : belfry of, 
550. 

Bubonic plague, the, 610 and note 3, 686. 
Buddhism (bood'iz'm), 484. 
Budget system, the, 694. 
Bulgaria, 493. 

Bulgarians, the, 834, 835, 363, 377, 495. 
" Bulls," papal, 453 and note 3. 
Bunyan, John, 724. 

Bur-gun'di-ans, the, conquered by the 
Franks, 303 ; become Catholic Christians, 
358. 

Bur'gun-dy, 513, 519, 654. 
Burma, 618. 

Buttress, the flying, 564. 
"Byzantine Empire," the, 328, 329. 
Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-?nn), 329. See also 
Constantinople. 

Cabot, John, 637, 728. 
Cadiz (ka'dez), 640, 678. 
Cairo (ki'ro), 337, 381, 383. 



Calais (Fr. pron. ka-le'), 518 and note 1, 549. 
Calendar, the Maya, 631. 
Gal'i-cut, 621. 

California, 635 ; Spanish missions in, 636. 
Caliph (ka'lif), the title, 379. 
Cal'iph-ate, the, 379-381. 
Calverts, the, 734. 
Calvin, John, 656, 657. 

Calvinism, diffusion of, 657 ; its organization 
and doctrines, 664. 

Cam'ba-luc. See Peking. 

Cambridge, city, 538 ; university of, 569, 570. 

Camoens (kam'o-ens), 622. 

Canada, French explorations in, 638 ; colo- 
nized, 749, 750 ; Jesuit missions in, 750 ; 
conquered by England, 753, 754. 

Canary Islands, 627. 

Canon law. See Law. 

Ca-nos'sa, humiliation of Ileniy IV at, 459, 
461. 

Cau'ter-bury, city, 323 ; cathedral of, 324 ; 
pilgrimages to, 442 ; archbishop of, 448, 461, 
504, 659, 661, 706. 

Canterbury Tales, Chaucer's, 557, 593, 604, 
613. 

Canute (kri-nuf), king of England, 407. 
Capet (Fr. pron. ka-pe'), Hugh, king of 

France, 403, 512. 
Capetian (ka-p6'shdn) dynasty, the, 512 and 

note 2. 

Carcassonne (kar-ka-son'), 530. 
Cardinals, college of, 454, 457, 665. 
Caribbean Sea, 627. 
Caroliuas, the, 734, 736, 739, 743, 745. 
Car-o-lin'gi-an dynasty, the, 306 and note 2, 
315, 317, 403. 

Car'thage, destroyed by the Arabs, 878. 
Cartier, Jacques (kar-tyil', zhak'), 638, 749. 
Caspian Sea, 309. 

Castile (kas-tel'), kingdom of, 520. 

Castles, feudal, 424-428, 584. 

Ca-thay'. See China. 

Cathedrals, 310, 324, 448, 562-566, 724. 

Catherine of Aragon, 659, 661. 

Catherine de' Medici (dil rail'de-che), 680. 

Catholic Church, conception of the, 342. See 

also Celtic Church, Greek Church, Eoman 

Church. 

" Cavaliers," the, 711. 

Caxton, William, 595. 

Celebes (sel'e-bez), 623, note 1. 

Celibacy of the clergy, 843, 446. 

Celtiberians, the, 519. 

Celtic Church, the, 328-325. 

Celts (selts), the, in "Wales, Scotland, and 

Ireland, 508, 509, 511 ; in France, 512 ; in 

Spain, 519. 

Central America, prehistoric cities of, 631. 
Cervantes (ser-van'tez), 603. 
Ceylon, 618, 623. 

Champlain (sham-plan'), Samuel dc, 749, 750. 
Channel Islands, 518 and note 1. 
Charitv, the medieval Church and, 463. 
Charlemagne (shar'le-man), 306, note 2, 307- 

312, 359, 415, .559, 560. 
Charles the Bald, 313, 814. 
Charles Martel, 306, 359, 879. 
Charles I, king of England, 705-718, 783, 734 ; 

II, 714, 715, 717, 718, 719, 784, 736. 
Charles II, king of Spain, 700. 
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 653-656, 

695, 661, 668, 671, 679. 

Charles VIII, king of France, 519 ; IX, 680. 



764 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Charters, civic, 531. 

CliaUatL Gaillarcl (sbii-to' gii-yar'), 424, 
426. 

Chaucer, Geolfrey, 557, 604, 612, 
Checkers, 580. 

Chemistry, Arab, 3S4 ; alchemy and, 574. 
Cherbourg- (sher-hoor'), 640. 
Chesapeake Bay, 730. 
Chess, 428, 579, 580. 
Children's Crusade, the, 478. 
Chile, 632. 

China, Nestorians in, 347 ; conquered by the 
Mongols, 485, 487 ; visited by the Polos, 488, 
616; Portuguese trade with, 488, 622. 

Chivalry. See Knighthood. 

Chosroes (kos'ro-ez), II, 332. 

Christianity, spread of Catholic, over Europe, 
302, 304, 305,308, 316, 322-325, 335, 358-360, 
396, 401, 526 ; Celtic and Roman, in the Brit- 
ish Isles, 322-325 ; development of, daring 
the first three centuries a.d., 342-346; 
eastern, 346-348 ; rise and growth of the 
Pai)acy, 348-351 ; monasticism, 352-358 ; 
separation of eastern and western, 360-363 ; 
the Papacv and the Holv Roman Empire, 
439-463; the Reformation, 643-686. See 
aho Celtic Church, Greek Church, Protes- 
tants, Roman Church. 

Christmas, 316, 435, 581, 582, 705. 

Chrysoloras (kris-o-lo'ras), 593. 

Church, Christian, development of the epis- 
copate, 342, 343 ; separation of clergy and 
laity, 343, 344 ; rise of heresies, 344 ; worship 
and holy days, 344-346. See also Christian- 
ity. 

Church of England. ^Sce Anglicanism. 

Churches : Aix-la-Chapelle, 310 ; St. Martin's, 
Canterbury, 323; Canterbury Cathedral, 
324 ; baptistei-y, cathedral and "campanile of 
Pisa, 544. 

Cibola (sG'bo-la), the Seven Cities of, 635. 

Oid (Sp. pron. theth), Poem of the, 520. 

Ci-pan'go. See Ja{)an. 

Circuit judges, English, 500, 502. 

Cistercian. (sis-tur'shan) order, the, 449. 

Citeaux (se-tcV), 449, 450. 

Cities, decline of, in the early Middle Ages, 
431 ; the civic revival, 437, 529 ; origin of, 
in the Middle Ages, 529, 530; feudalism 
and medieval, 530, 531 ; rise of the "third 
estate," 531 ; city life, 531-534; civic trade 
and industrv, 534-539 ; commercial rela- 
tions between. 540 ; Italian, 543-.547, 590 ; 
German, 547-549 ; Flemish, 549-552 ; Dutch, 
671 ; English, in the seventeenth centurv, 
721, 722. 

Civilization, Byzantine, 335-337 ; Arabian, 
3S1-386 ; medieval, 554-588. 

Clairvaux (klar-v6'), 450. 

Clement VII, pope, 645. 

Clergy, secular. 446-448 ; regular, 448-450 ; 
influence of the, in medieval times, 464. See 
aha Friars, Monasticism, Priesthood. 

Cler'mont, Council of, 469, 470. 

Clothing. See Costume. 

Clo-til'da, 304. 

Clovis, king of the Franks, 303-305. 
Cluny (klii-ne'), monastery of, 448, 449. 
Cochin-China (ko'chin chl'na), 618. 
Coinage, debasement of, in the Middle Ages, 

541, 542. See also Money. 
Colbert (kol-bar'), policies of, 694, 695, 697, 

750. 



Coligny (ko-len'ye). Admiral de, 680, 681, 749. 
Cologne (ko-lon'), 314, 402, 529, 535, 548. 
Colonial pohcy, Portuguese, 623 ; Spanish, 

637, 638 ; French, 695, 726 ; mercantilism 

and, 727 ; English, 745, 746. 
Colonies, Portuguese, 622, 623 and note 1, 670; 

Dutch, 623, 726, 736. 737 ; Spanish, 635 ; 

French, 638, 695, 749-752; English, 639, 

728-749 ; Swedish, 736, 737. 
Columbus, Christopher, 626-628. 
Co-rae'ni-us, 607. 

Commerce, Byzantine, 335, 336; Arabian, 
369, 382, 383, 623 ; influence of the crusades 
on, 480, 481, 539 ; medieval, 539, 540 ; Geno- 
ese, 544 ; Venetian, 546, 547 ; Hanseatic, .548, 
549; Flemish, 549, 550 ; Portuguese, 622, 623 ; 
Spanish, 637, 639 ; effect of the maritime 
discoveries on, 640 ; of the thirteen colonies, 
745, 746. 

Com'mo-dus, Roman emperor, 219. 
Common law. See Law. 
Commons, House of, 507, 703, 705, 710, 712, 
714, 716, 746, 747. 
Commonwealth, the, England under, 714-717. 
Companies, trading, 727,' 728, 729, 736. 
Compass, the mariner's, 383, 573, 618, 620. 
Complutensian Polyglott, the, 601, note 1. 
Concordat of Worms" the, 459, 460. 
Conde (koN-dii'), 698. 
Confederations. See Federations. 
Congo River, 621. 

Congregational churches, 664, note 1, 712, 

note 1, 718, 739. 
Connaught (kon'ot), 714. 
Connecticut, 734, 739, 742, 747. 
Conqaiatadores (kon-kes-tii-fho'ras), the, 

635. 

Conrad I, 315 ; III, 474. 
Constance, Council of, 645, 650. 
Constantine Palieologus, Roman emperor in 
the East, 492, 493. 

Constantinoi)le, attacked by the Russians, 
335 ; as the center of Byzantine civilization, 
335-337 ; situation of, "337, 338 ; described, 
339-341 ; besieged by the Arabs, 377 ; cap- 
tured by the crusaders, 477 ; Latin Empire 
of, 478 ;' siege and capture of, by the Ottoman 
Turks, 492, 493, 593. 

Constitution, the, of the United States, 721, 
740. 

Co-per'ni-cus, 607, 608, 609. 
Copper, 631. 

Cor'do-va, 337, 380 and note 3, 382-384, 886. 
Coronado (Span. pron. ko-rS-na'tho), Fran- 
cisco de, 635. 

Coronation Chair, the, 508. 
Cor' pus Ju'ris Civ-i'lis, 331, 421, 567, 568, 
572. 

Corresrgio (kor-red'jo), 599. 
Corsica, 330. 

Cortes (Span. pron. kor-tas'), Hernando, 634, 
Cosmas map, the, 615, 617. 
Cosmology, medieval, 608, 614, 615. 
CostumeV clerical, 344, 345; in the Middle 
Ages, 585, 586. 

" Council of Rlood," the, 672. 

Councils, Church: Nicaaa, 343, 344; Con- 
stance, 645, 649, 650 ; Trent, 667, 668. 

Counter Reformation, the Catholic, 665-668. 

County system, the, in the thirteen colonies, 
748. 

Courts, feudal, 419-421 ; royal, in the Middle 
Ages, 500, 502, 514. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 765 



Covenanters, the Scotch, 708, "10. 

Craft guild, the, 536-587, 565.. 

Cranmer, Thomas, 659, 661. 

Crecv (lu-a-se'), battle of, 516. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 710-717. 733, 734. 

Crusades, the, causes of, 466-468 ; First Cru- 
sade, 468-472 ; crusaders' states in Syria, 
472-474 ; Second and Third, 474-476 ; Fourth 
Crusade, 476-473 ; Children's Crusade, 478; 
end of, 478, 479 ; results of, 479-481. 

Culture. See Civilization. 

Cuzco, 633, 635. 

Cvmric (kim'rik), the "Welsh language, 508. 
Cyprus (si'prj/s), 376, 377, 479, 546, 669. 
CyrQ (sir'il), 360. 
Csar (zar). See Tsar, 

Damascus, 337, 380, 381, 382, 474, 540. 
Dane'geld, the, 407. 
Dane'law, the, 404, 406. 

Danes, converted to Christianitv, 396 ; in 

England, 403, 404, 406, 407, 556. 
Dante Alighieri (dan'ta a-le-gya're), 591, 592, 

602. 605, 624, 644. 
Dar-da-nelles', 338, 491. 
De-cam' er-on, the, 593. 
Degrees, universitv, 568. 
Deification of kings, 638, 689. 
Delaware, 736, 737, 73S, 747, note 4. 
Delhi (del'e), 488. 

Demarcation, papal line of, 628 and note 2 ; 
635, note 2. 

Democracy, of the medieval Church, 463, 464 ; 

of medieval cities, 581, 534, 590. 
Denmark, 314, 315, 396, 650, 662. 
Despots, Italian, 543. 
Devil, the, 373, 575, 578. 
Diaz (de'ath), Eodrigo, 520 ; Bartholomew, 

621. 

Dictatus papoe,, the, 458 and note 1. 

"Dispensations," papal. 453, 659. 

Dissenters, the, 718, 721, 740. 

Divination, medieval, 575. 

Div.ine Comedy, the, 591, 592, 602, 624, 644. 

DTriue right of kings, the. 638-690, 692, 693, 

704. 720, 721. 
Dnieper (ne'per) Eiver, 335, 400, 401, 485. 
Dniester (nes'ter) Pdver, 335. 
Doge (doj) of Venice, the, 547 and note 2. 
Dome, the, as an architectural feature, 336, 

597 and note 4. 

Domesday (domz'dii) Book, 499. 
Do-min'i-cans, order of the, 452, 453. 
" Donation of Pepin," the, 8ii6, 307. " 
"Do-nothing kings," the, 305, 306. 
Don Quixote (Span.pron. don ke-ho'ta), 603. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 639, 678. 
Drama, medieval, 582, 583 ; Shakespearian, 
605. 

Dress. See Costume. 
Drinking customs, 320, 587. 
Dublin. 397. 

Duel, the judicial, 420. 421. 
Duquesne (du-kan'). Fort, 753 and note 1. 
Dwellings : the castle, 427 ; the manor house, 
534, 535. 

Dwi'na Eiver, 399. 

East Anglia, 320. 

Easter, 323, 346, 435. 

East Goths. See Ostrogoths, 

East Mark, 316. See also Austria. 

Ebro Eiver, 309. 



Economic conditions, during the feudal 
period, 431, 4:33-4-37 ; during the later Mid- 
dle Ages, 541, 542,609-613; in England, 
during the seventeenth century, 722, 723 ; in 
the thirteen colonies, 742-746. 

Ecuador, 632. 

E-des'sa, principality of, 472, 474. 
Edicts: Nantes, 681, 695, 696, 722, 733; Ees- 
titution, 633. 
Edinburgh, 510. 

Education, in the early Middle Ages, 309, 
310, 406, 464, 566; Byzantine, 337; Arab, 
883 ; medieval universities, 566-570 ; scho- 
lasticism, 570-572; Eenaissance, 606, 607; 
Jesuit, 666; in the thirteen colonies, 741, 
742. 

Edward the Confessor, king of England, 407. 

Edward I, king of England, "Model Pariia- 
ment " of, 507 ; conquest of Wales and 
Scotland bv. 507-511 ; II, 503, 511 ; III, 515, 
516, 517; YI, 661. 

Egbert, king of Wessex, 820, 403, 404. 
Egypt, Christian hermits in, 352 ; conquered 

by the Arabs, 370, 378 ; a center of Moslem 

power. 475, 477. 
Ein'hard, 307. 

Elbe Eiver. 303, 315, 402, 525. 

Elder Edda, the, 393. 

El Dorado (el do-rii'do), 635. 

Elizabeth, queen of England, 639, 661, 664, 
670, 674-679, 703, 704, 717, 718, 728, 781. 

E-mir'ate of Cordova, the, 330 and note 3. 

Empire, Charlemagne's, 311-314; Holv Eo- 
man, 311, 312, 317-319, 456-463, 522', 648- 
646 ; Eoman, in the West, 312 ; of Otto the 
Great, 317-319 ; Eoman, in the East, 328- 
841. 412, 463, 469. 477, 473, 479, 491-493; 
New Persian, 382, 838, 376; Arabian, 375- 
331 ; Portuguese colonial, 622, 623 and 
note 1, 670 ; Spanish colonial, 635-033 ; 
English colonial, 728-738; French colonial, 
749-752. 

England, conquered bv the Danes, 408, 404, 
406, 407; Norman Conquest of, 407, 403, 
410 ; under William the Conqueror, 497- 
499 ; under Henry II, 499, 500, 502 ; under 
Eichard I, John, and Henry III, 502, 504- 
506 ; under Edward I, 507-5il ; the Hundred 
Tears' War between France and, 515-513; 
the War of the Eoses. 51S, 519 ; the Eeforma- 
tion in, 653-661; under Elizabeth, 674-679 ; 
at war with Louis XIV, 099, 700, 701, 752, 
753 ; under James I and Charles I. 708-710 ; 
the Puritan Eevolution, 710-713; the Com- 
monwealth and Protectorate, 714-717 ; the 
E'estoration and the " Glorious Eevolution," 
717-721 ; in the seventeenth century, 721- 
725; colonies of, in North America, 723— 
733 ; conquest of New France by, 752-754. 
See also Britain. 

English, the, racial elements in, 319, 320, 404, 
406, 410. 

Epic poetr3% medieval French, 559, 560 ; the 

Nibeluncjenlied, 560, 561. 
E-piph'a-ny, 346. 
Episcopate, the, 342, 343. 868, 664. 
E-ras'mus, Des-i-de'ri-us, 600, 601, 613, 647, 

652, 665. 

Er-a-tos'the-nes, 624. 

Erfurt (er'fdt)rt), university of, 651. 

Eric the Eed. 399. 

Ericsson. Leif (er'lk-swn, lif ), 399. 

Eskimos, the, 399. 



766 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Essex, 320. 

Estates-General, the French, 514, 515, 644, 694. 

Eth'el-bert, king of Kent, 322, 323. 

Euclid (u'klfd), 8S5. 

Eugene (u-zhen'), Prince, 701. 

Evil eye, the, 577. 

Excommunication, 445, 446, 461. 

Expansion, Anglo-Saxon, 738. 

Exploration, Viking, 397-401 ; of Asia, during 
the later Middle Ages, 616, 61S ; aids to 
ocean navigation, 618, 619 ; motives for, 
in the Renaissance period, 619, 620 ; of the 
African coast, bv the Portuguese, 620, 621 ; of 
America by the'Spaniards, 627, 628, 633-635 ; 
Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe, 
628, 629 ; French and English, in America, 
638, 639, 728, 732, 750, 751. 

Fairies in European folklore, 396, 576, 577. 
Fairs in the Middle Ages, 535, 587, 538. 
Falconry, 428, 429. 
Farming. See Agriculture. 
Faroe (far'o) Islands, 398. 
Fealty, oath of, 418. 

Federations: Lombard League, 460; Swiss 
Confederation, 523-525 ; Hanseatic League, 
548, 549 ; the United Netherlands, 673, 685 ; 
United Colonies of New England, 749. 

Fenris, 395. 

Ferdinand, king of Aragon, 520, 521, 522, 542, 
628; I, Holy Koman Emperor, 668; II, 683, 
685. 

Festivals, Christian, 345, 346 ; during the 
Middle Ages, 580-582 ; in the thirteen colo- 
nies, 738, 739. 

Feudalism, rise of, 415, 416 ; non-European 
parallels to, 416; as a system of local gov- 
ernment, 416-419 ; as a system'of local jus- 
tice, 419-421 ; feudal warfare, 421-423 ; 
feudal castles, 424-428; knighthood and 
chivalry, 428-431 ; feudal manors, 431, 433- 
436 ; serfdom, 436, 437 ; decline of, 437, 438 ; 
influence of the crusades on, 480; the na- 
tional states and, 496, 497 ; Wilham the 
Conqiaeror's policy toward, 498; the medi- 
eval cities and, 530, 531; policy of Richelieu 
and Mazarin toward, 690, 69i ; in the thir- 
teen colonies, 734, 743. 

Fief, the, 417, 418. 

Finland, the Swedes in, 400, 684. 

Finns, the, 360, 400, 483. 

Flanders, county of, 516, 549-552, 556, note 1 
698. 

Flemings, the, 549. 

Florence, in the Middle Ages, 544, 545 ; dur- 
ing the Renaissance, 590, 591, 592, 593, 
597. 

Florida, discovery of, 634 ; the French in, 
749 ; becomes an English possession, 754. 

Folk tales, European, 396, 575, 576. 

Food of medieval peoples, 586, 587. 

France, origin of the name, 303, note 3 ; the 
Normans in, 402, 403; Capetian dynasty 
established in, 403, 512 ; physical and racial, 
511, 512 ; territorial growth of, 512-514, 519 ; 
Hundred Years' War between England and, 
515-518 ; under Francis I, 679 ; the Hugue- 
not wars in, 679-682 ; under Henry IV, 
681, 682 ; intervention of, in the Thirty 
Years' War, 682, 684, 685 ; under Richelieu 
and Mazarin, 689-692; under Louis XIV, 
692-702 ; North American colonies of, 695, 
749-752. 



Franche Comte (fniNsh'-koN-tfi'), 700. 
Franchise, the, in the thirteen colonies, 747. 
Francis I, king of France, 638, 654, 679. 
Fran-cis'cans, order of, 452, 453, 488, 616, 636, 
750. 

Fran-co'ni-a, 315 and note 1. 

FrankUn, Benjamin, 738, 749. 

Franks, the, conquests of, under Clovis, 
303 ; converted to Catholic Christianity, 304, 
305, 858 ; expansion of, under the earher 
Merovingians, 305; under Charles Martel 
and Pepin the Short, 305-307 ; under Charle- 
magne, 307-312. 

Frederick I, Barbarossa, Holy Roman Em- 
peror, 460, 461, 475, 522; II, 462, 478; the 
Wise, elector of Saxony, 651, 653. 

French, the, racial elements in, 512. 

" French and Indian War," the, 749, 753, 754. 

Frescoes. See Wall paintings. 

Friars, orders of, 450-453. 

Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, 374 ; an 
unlucky day, 579. 

Frigga, 395, 

Frob'ish-er, 639, 728. 

Froissart (frwii-sar'), 603. 

Furniture in the Middle Ages, 427, 584, 585. 

Future life, ideas of the, in Islam, 373, 374, 
375 ; conception of Purgatory, 433, 444. 

Ga'bri-el, archangel, 371, 374. 
Gaelic (gal'ik), the Celtic speech of Scotland, 
509. 

Gal'i-lee, lake of, 475. 
Galileo (gal-i-le'o), 608, 609. 
Gal-lip'o-li, 491. 
Gallo-Romans, the, 512, 555. 
Gama (ga'ma), Vasco da, 621, 623. 
Games, medieval, 579, 580. 
Garonne (ga-ron') River, 402. 
Gargovles, 565. 

Gaul, Franks in, 803 ; Arabs in, 879. 

Gauls, the, Romanization of, 512. 

Geneva, Calvin's residence in, 656, 657. 

Genoa, city. 802, 545, 622, 640. 

Geographical conditions in European historf, 
389, 390, 497, 509, 510, 511, 512, 519, 525. 

Geography, Arab knowledge of, 383; medi- 
eval, 614^618 ; progress of, in the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries, 627-630, 683-635, 
688, 689. 

Geometry, 385. 

George H, king of England, 737 ; III, 746. 

Georgia, 737, 743, 747, note 3. 

Germans, the, Ostrogoths and Lombards in 
Italv, 298-302 ; converted to Christianity in 
its Arian form, 300, 302, 326, 358; rise of 
the Franks, 303 ; the Anglo-Saxons in 
Britain, 319-322; fusion of, with Romans, 
325, 820 ; missionary labors of St. Boniface 
among, 359 ; the Slavs and the, 526, 526 ; em- 
igration of, to the thirteen colonies, 738. 

Germany, under Saxon kings, 315-817 ; con- 
sequences to, of the restoration of the Ro- 
man Empire by Otto the Great, 818, 319, 
462 ; the Northmen in, 402 ; eastward ex- 
pansion of, in the Middle Ages, 525, 526; 
political condition of, at the close of the 
Middle Ages, 526, 527.; the Reformation in, 
651-656 ; the Thirty Years' War, 682-686. 

Ghent (gent), 551, 552. 

Giants in European folklore, 896, 577. 

Gi-bral'tar, strait of, 378 and note 4 ; fortress 
of, 701. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 767 



Gilbert, Sir Humphrev, 72S. 

Globular theory, the, 624. 

"Glorious Eevolation," the, 720, 721, 752. 

Goa, 622. 

Gobehns (go-blaN') manufactory, the, 696. 
Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-yoN'),' -170, 472. 
Gods and goddesses, Scandina\ian, 394, 395. 
Goethe (gu'te). German poet, 605. 
"Golden Gate" of Constantinople, the, 339. 
" Golden Horde," the, 490. 
Good Hope, Cape of, 621. 
Gothic architecture, 563-560. 
Goths. See Ostrogoths, Visigoths. 
Government, feudal, 416-419 ; rise of national 
states, 496, 497. 

Governor, the, in the thirteen colonies, 747. 
Gra-na'da, 3S2, 3S6, 520, 521. 
Grand Alliance, the, 701. 
Grand Caual of Venice, the, 547. 
Gratian, 566. 

Great Britain, 507, 508. See aho British 
Isles. 

Great Charter. See Magna Carta. 
Great Council, the, in Norman England, 
506. . 

Great Eebellion. See Puritan Eevolution. 

" Great Schism," the, 645. 

Greek Church, the, missionarv activity of, 

in the early Middle Ages, 335, 360, 401 ; 

orthodoxy of, 347, 343 ; schism between, 

and Rome, 360-363 ; organization and 

worship of, 363, 364. 
" Greek Empire," the, 32S. 
" Greek fire," 377. 

Greeks, the, partially Slavonicized, 334; con- 
quered by the Ottoman Turks, 493. 

Greenland, colonized by the Northmen, 398, 
399 ; coast of, explored by Frobisher. 728. 

Greenwich (grin'ij), observatory of, 723. 

Gregorian Calendar, the, 363. 

Gregory I, the Great, pope, 322, 350, 351 ; 
VII, 458, 459, 644. 

Grotius (gro'shi-i/s), Hugo, 686. 

Guatemala, 631. 

Guiana, 726, 728. 

Guilds, medieval, 534-537, 568, 583, 723. 
Guinea (gin'i), gulf of, 621, 626. 
Guiscard (ges-kar'), Eobert, 412, 470 ; Eoger, 
412, 413. 

Gunpowder, discovery of, 573, 574. 
Gustavus Ad(j[iihus, 6S4, 686, 730. 
Gutenberg (goo'ten-berK), 595. 

Habeas Corpus Act, the, 719. 
Hagen (ha'ge"), 560, 561. 
Hallow Eve, 581. 

Hamburg (Ger. pron. ham'bdSrK), 402, 548, 
549, 640. 

Hampden, John, 706, 707, 710, 711. 
Hanno, exploring voyage of, 621. 
Han-se-at'ic League, "the, 548, 549. 
Hapsburg (Ger. pron. hiips'bdSrK) dynasty, 

the, 462 and note 2, 522, 654, 668, 683, 685, 

690, 691, 700, 701. 
Earem (hu'rem), the, 387. 
Harold, king of England, 407, 408, 410. 
Harun-al-Rashid (ha-roon'-ar-rS-shed'), 380. 
Harvey, 609, 723. 
Hastings, battle of, 408, 410, 560. 
Heb'ri-des Islands. 398, 399. 
Hegira (he-ji'ra.), th^, 371 and note 3. 
Hel, the Norse underworld. 395. 
Henry II, king of England, 499, 500, 502 ; 



III. 505, 506; VII, 518, 653, 703. 728; VIII, 
653-601, 703. 

Henry II, king of France, 679; IV, 631, 
632, 749. 

Henry I, king of Germany, 315, 316, 359, 

525 ; III, 456 ; IV, 459. 
Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 620, 621, 626. 
Her-a-cli'us, Eoman emperor in the East, 

321, 322. 

Herat (her- at'), 485. 

Hereford (her'e-ferd) map, the, 615, 617. 

Heresies, rise of, 344, 347, 349 ; punishment 
of, in the Middle Ages, 647, 648 ; the Albi- 
genses, 452, 64S ; the Waldenses, 648, 649 ; 
the Lollards, 649, 650 ; the Hussites, 650. 

Heretics. See Heresies. 

Hermits, early Christian, 352, 353. 

Hesse (lies), 359. 

Highlands of Scotland, 509, 510. 

Hil'de-brand. See Gregory VII. 

Hip'po-drome of Constantinople, 339. 

His-pa'ni-a, 519. 

Historians, Eenaissance, 602, 603. 
Hoder (he'der), 395. 

Hohenstaufen (ho'en-stou-fen) dynasty, the, 
460 and note 1, 461. 

HohenzoUern (ho'en-tsol-ern) dynasty, the, 

315 and note 2, 702. 
llolidavs, medieval, 435, 580-532. 
Holland, 305, 314, 662, 673, 699, 700, 701, 726, 

731. 

Holstein (hol'shtin), 683. 
Holy Land, the, 467, 469, 473, 476, 479, 480. 
" Holy Eoman Empire," the name, 312, note 
1, 462, note 1. 

Holy Eoman Empire. See Empire. 
Holy Sepulcher, church of the, 472, note 1. 
Homage, ceremony of, 413. 
Homeric poems, study of, during the Eenais- 
sance, 591, 593. 
Honduras, 631. 

Hos'pi-tal-ers, order of the, 473 and note 1, 
479. 

Hotel des Invalides (o-tel' da-zuN-va-led'), 
597, note 4, 696. 

Huguenots (hii'ge-nots), the, 679 and note 3, 
695, 696, 722, 733. 
Huguenot wars, the, 679-682. 
Humanism, 593, 594, 600, 601, 602, 606, 607. 
Hundred Years' War, the, 515-519. 
Hungarians. See Magyars. 
Huno-ary, 316, 489, 490," 522, 666. 
Huss (hiis), John, 650, 652. 
Hussite wars, the, 650, 683. 
Hymns, Latin, 558 ; Luther's, 654 and note 1. 

Iberians, the, 519. 
Ib'lis, 373. 

Iceland, as a literary center, 393 ; Christianity 
introduced into," 396; colonized by the 
Northmen, 393. 

Iconoclastic controversy, the, 362. 

Il'men, Lake, 400. 

Immortality. See Future life. 

Incas, the, "633, 635. 

In-cu-nah' U'la, 596. 

Indentured white servants, 743, 744. 

Independents, the. 712. 714, 718, 730. 

" Index of Prohibited Books." the, 663. 

India, Nestorians in, 347 and note 1 ; Arab 

con(iuests in, 377; the Moguls in, 488; 

Portuguese possessions in, 622, 623. 
Indian Ocean, 622, 623, 



768 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary^ 



Indians, American, 630-633, 636. 

Indies, East, 622, 623, 625, 630 ; West, 627, 
634, note 1, 695. 726, 742, 744, 745. 

Indulgences, Luther's criticisms of, 652. 

Industry, Byzantine, 336 ; Arab, 382 ; in 
medieval cities, 535-537, 543, 550, 551; In 
England, during the seventeenth century, 
722, 723 ; in the thirteen colonies, 742, 745. 

Innocent III, pope, 461, 476, 477, 478, 504, 
648. 

Inquisition, the, 668, 671, 672. 
Inscriptions, 347, 390. 
Institute of France, the, 697. 
Institutes of the Christian Religion, Cal- 
vin's, 656, 657. 

Instrument of Government, the, 716, 717. 

Interdict, the, 445, 446, 461. 

Interest. See Usury. 

International law, rise of, 686. 

In-ter-reg'num, the, 462. 

Investiture, conllict over, 457-460. 

Ireland, Christianity introduced into, 323, 

325 ; the Northmen in, 397 ; conquered by 

England, 511, 676, 713. , 
Ir-ne'ri-us, 567. 
Iron, 390. 

" Iron Crown " of Lombardy, 308, 309, 317. 
"Ironsides," Cromwell's, 712, 
Isaac, Hebrew patriarch, 867. 
Isabella of Castile, 520, 521, 522, 542, 627, 
628, 629. 
Ish'ma-el, 367. 

Islam (is'lt/m), principles and pi-actices of, 
372-375 ; expansion of, 375-379 ; influence 
of, 386, 387. 

Isles of the Blest, the, 624. 

Italy, the Ostrogoths in, 298-300; the Lom- 
bards in, 300, 302 ; Frankish rule over, 306, 
307, 309 ; restoration of the Roman Empire 
by Otto the Great and its consequences to, 
317, 318, 462 ; Norman conquest of south- 
ern, 412, 590, 591 ; in the Eenaissance, 
589-594, 597-600. 

Ivan (e-van') III, the Great, tsar, 490, 491. 

Jacquerie (zhak-re'), the, 612 and note 1. 
James I, king of England, 511, note 1, 639, 

676, and note 1, 703-705, 729, 730, 781 ; II, 

719, 720, 734, 736, 751. 
Jamestown founded, 729, 730. 
Jan-i-za'ries, the, 491 and note 4, 492. 
Japan, 485, 618, 622, 626. 
Java, 382, 623, note 1. 

Jenghiz Khan (jen'giz Kan'), Mongol con- 
queror, 485. 

Jerusalem, during the crusades, 472, 474, 475, 
479 ; regarded as center of the world, 614, 615. 

Jesuits, the, 666 and note 1, 667, 676, 750. 

Jews, the, condition of, in the Middle Ages, 
542 ; in England and the thirteen colonies, 
721, 740. 

Jihad (je-hiid'), 375. 
Joan of Arc, 517, 518. 
John, Don, of Austria, 669. 
John, king of England, 461, 502, 504, 505, 
514. 

John, king of France, 516, 517. 
John XII, pope, 317. 
Joint-stock companies, 727, 728. 
Joliet (Fr. pron. zho-lyu'), 750. 
Jotunheim (vo'td6n-hum), 894. 
Joust, the, 430. 

Jury, trial and accusation by, 500, 502, 746. 



Justices of the peace, 748. 
Jus-tin'i-an, Eoman emperor in the East 
300 ; reign of, 329-332, 361, 378. 
"Just price," medieval idea of the, 537. 

Kaaba (ka'a-bd), the, 368, 369, 371, 372. 
Kent, 320, 322, 328, 611. 
Kepler, 608, 609. 
Khadija (ka-de'ja), 870, 371. 
Kiev (ke'yef ), 400, 401, 488. 
" King George's War," 753. 
"King William's War," 700, note 1, 752, 
note 1. 

Kingship. See Monarchy. 

" King's Road," the, 637 and note 1. 

Knighthood, 428-431. 

Koran (ko-ran'), the, 872, 373, 

Korea, 485, 595. 

Koreish (ko-risV), 370, 371. 

Kriem'hild, 560, 561. 

Kublai Khan (koo'bll Kan'), 487, 488, 616. 

Labor, systems of, in the thirteen colonies, 
743, 744. 
Laborers, statutes of, 611. 
Labrador, 399, 638, 728. 

Ladrone (lii-dro'na) Islands, the, 629, and 
note 1. 

La Fontaine (la foN-ten'), 696. 
Lancaster (larj'kcts-ter), house of, 518. 
Lan'ce-lot, Sir, the ideal knight, 429, 430. 
Land, feudal tenure of, 417, 431 ; tenure of, 

in thirteen colonies, 742, 743. 
Lan-go-bar'di. See Lombards. 
Language, English, 822, 411. 556-558; Latin, 

322, 440, 497, 512, 554, 555, 556, 591, 594; 

Norman-French, 411, 556; Cymric, 508; 

Gaelic, 509 ; Spanish, 520 ; French, 555 ; 

Icelandic, 556 and note 2 ; Greek, 590, 591, 

593 ; Italian, 592 ; German, 653. 
Lapland, 490. 

Lapps, the, 483. 

La Salle (la sal'), 750, 751. 

Lat'er-an Palace, the, 455, 457. 

Laud, Archbishop, 706, 707, 710, 713. 

Law : Common law of England, 322, 831, 
500, 502, 719, 746; "Laws of the Barbari- 
ans," 826; the Corpus Juris Civilis, 331, 
421, 567, 568, 572 ; feudal, 419-421 ; canon, 
444 and note 1, 568 ; the rise of inter- 
national law, 686. 

" Laws of the Barbarians," the, 826. 

Leagues. See Federations. 

Lech (lek) River, battle of the, 816. 

Legates, papal, 454. 

Legnano (la-nyii'no), battle of, 460. 

Leinster (len'ster), 714. 

Leipzig (ITp'sik), city, 539 ; university of, 569. 
Lent, 346, 445, 619. 
Leo I, the Great, pope, 850 ; III, 311. 
Leo III, the Isaurian, Eoman emperor in 
the East, 377. 

Leon (la-on'). kingdom of, 520, 521. 
Leon, Ponce de, 634. 

Leonardo da Vinci (la-o-nar'do da ven'che), 
599. 

Lepanto (la-piin'to), battle of, 669. 

Leyden (li'den), 671, 731. 

Libraries, Arab, 883 ; the Vatican Library, 

594 ; the National Library, 697. 
Liege (le-uzh'), 402. ^ 

Lima (le'mii). 685. " 
Lim'er-ick, 897. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Lisbon, 621, 623, 626, 640. 

Literature, Byzantine, 337 ; Arabic, 3S5 ; 
medieval, 55S-561 ; Eenaissance, 591-593, 
602-605; French, under Louis XIV, 696, 
69T ; English, in the seventeenth century, 
724 ; in the thirteen colonies, 73S, See also 
Humanism. 

Lith-u-a'ni-ans, converted to Christianity, 
360. 

Liverpool, 640. 

Logarithms, discovery of, 723. 
Loire (Iwar) River, 303, 402, 514. 
Lo'ki. 395. 

Lollards, the, 649, 650. 

Lombard League, the, 460. 

Lombards, the, form a kingdom in Italy, 300, 
3U2, 332, 351 ; defeated and conquered bv 
the Franks, 306, 308, 309 ; become Catholic 
Christians, 358. 

Lombard Street, 543, note 1. 

Lombardy, 302. 

London, 410, 548, 677, 721, 722, 724, 729. 
London Bridge, 510, 548, 677. 
London Company, the, 729, 730, 731. 
Long bow, the, 516. 
Lords, House of, 507, 703, 714, 719. 
Lorraine (16-ran'), 314 and note 1, 315, note 1, 
316, 698. 

Lothair (lo-thar'), 313, 314. 
Lothringen (lot'ring-en). See Lorraine. 
Louis the German, 313, 314 ; the Pious, 312, 
396. 

Louis YII, king of France. 474; IX, the 
Saint, 514; XI. 519 ; XIII, 6S2, 691 ; XIV, 
692-702, 720, 725, 752 ; XV, 702, note 2, 751, 
note 1, 752. 

Louisburg, 753. 

Louisiana, 695, 750, 753, 754. 

Louvain (loo-vaN'), town hall of, 551. 

Louvois (loo-vwa'), 69S, 700. 

Louvre (loS'vr"), palace of the, 601,' 696. 

Low Countries. See Netherlands. 

Lovola (16-vo'la), St. Ignatius, 665, 666. 

Liibeck (lu'bek), 548, 549, 640. 

Lu-cerne', Lake, 523. 

Lu'si-ads, the, 622. 

Luther, Martin, 651-654. 

Lutheranism, legal recognition of, in Ger- 
many, 655 : spreads to Scandinavia, 656; its 
doctrines and organization, 663, 664. 

Lutherans, the. 654-656. 

Liitzen (liit'sen), battle of, 634. 

Ma-ca'o, 622. 

MachiaveUi (ma-kya-vul'lu), 602. 

Madeira (ma-dii'ra) Islands, the, 620. 

Madonna. See Virgin Mary. 

Magdeburg (mag'd(^'-b<5c)rK), 634. 

Ma-gel'lan, Fer'di-nand, 629, 630. 

Magic in the Middle Ages, 574, 575. 

Magicians, medieval, 575. 

Magistrates of a medieval city, 534. 

Mag'na Car'ta. wiiininar of, 504, 505 ; provi- 
sions of, 505. 694, 706, 717, 719, 720. 

Magyars (mod'yors), the, inroads of, 314; 
wars of Henry the Fowler and Otto the 
Great with, 315, 310 ; their settlement in 
Europe, 316 and note 1 ; converted to Chris- 
tianity, 360. 

Maine, 734, note 1. 

Mainz (mints), 595. 

Ma-lac'ca. 622. 

Malory, Sir Thomas, 560, 595. 



Manchuria, 483. 

Manor, the medieval, 431, 433-430, 610, 611. 
Manor houses, 534, 535. 
Mansard (maN-sar'), 696. 
Man'tu-a, 6U6. 

Manufacturing. See Industry. 
Manuscripts, 596, 597. 

Maps, medieval, 614, 615, 617 ; the nortolani, 
619. 

Margraves, 309. 

Mariannes. See Ladrone Islands. 
Markets in the Middle Ages, 537. 
" Marks," 309. 
Marlborough, duke of, 701. 
Mar'mo-ra, Sea of, 338. 
Marquette (mar-kef), 750. 
Marseilles (miir-salz'), 529. 
Martin V, pope, 645. 

Mai-y (wife of William III), 720 and note 1. 
Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, 676, 677. 
Marv Tudor, queen of England, 661. 
Maryland, 734, 736, 739, 740, 743, 744, 747. 
Massachusetts, 733 and note 1, 734, 739, 740 

742, 745, 746, 749. 
Mathematics, Arab, 334, 335; discovery of 

logarithms, 723. 
Matilda, Countess, 459. 
Matrimony, sacrament of. 441, 444. 
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, 654. 
Mavas (mii'vas), the, 631, 632, 637. 
May Day, 435, 531, 532, 705. 
Mayflower Compact, the, 731, 732. 
" Mayors of the palace," Frankish, 305, 300. 
JNIazarin (ma-za-raN'), Cardinal, 69(1-692, 

694. C98. 
Mecca, 309, 371, 372, 374. 
Medici (med'e-che), the, 594. 
Medicine, Arab, 384. 
Medina (ma-de'na), 371, 380. 
Mendicant orders. See Friars. 
Mercantile system, the, 726, 727, 745. 
Merchant guild, the, 534, 535. 
Mer'ci-a, kingdom of, 320. 
Mer-o-vin'gi-an, dynasty, the, 305 and note 1. 
Mer'sen, Treaty of, 313. 
Merv (merf), 485. 
Me-tho'di-us, 360. 
Metz, 693. 

Meuse (mfiz) River, 402. 
Mexico, the Aztec power in, 632 ; conquered 
bv the Spaniards, 634. 
Mexico City, 632, 637. 
Michael, archangel, 517. 

Michelangelo (Ital. pron. me-kel-an'ia-lo), 
598, 599. 

Middle Ages, the, transition to, 298 ; central 
period of, 537, 583 ; later period of, 589. 
Middle class, the, in medieval Europe, 531. 
Midgard serpent, the, 394, 395, 396. 
Midsummer Eve, 531. 
Milan (milVni), citv, 543, 544. 
Militarism, French, 098. 
Militarv-religious orders, 473, 526. 
INIilton, John, 724. 
Minorca, island of, 701. 
Minstrels, 302. 423, 559. 
Miracle ])lavs. 5s2. 583. 
Mifi'si i/o-inui'i-ci. the. 300. 
Missionaries. Jesuit, OOC. 667, 750. 
Missions in America. G36, 75ll. 
Mississiitpi Kiver. 635, 60.5, Tr)(», 754. 
Moawiva (mo-a-wr's'a t. oSo. 
Mo-guis', rule of the, in India, 488. 



770 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Mo-ham'med, prophet, 370-372. 

Mohammed II, sultan, 492, 493. 

Mohammedanism. See, Islam. 

Mohammedans. See Moslems. 

Moliere (rno-lyar'), 696. 

Mo-luc'cas. See Spice Islands. 

Monai'chy, rise of absolute, in Europe, 496- 
499, 512, 514, 515, 518, 519, 521, 522. See 
also Absolutism. 

Monasticism, rise of, 352, 353 ; the Benedic- 
tine Rule, 354, 355 ; life and work of Bene- 
dictine monks, 355-358 ; the Cluniac revival, 
448, 449 ; the Cistercian order, 449 ; the 
friars, 450-453 ; suppression of, in Scandi- 
navia and England, 656, 660, 661. 

Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, 541 ; 
the Jews as money lenders, 542 ; increased 
supply of, after the discovery of America, 
640, 641. See also Coinage. 

Mongolia, 347, 483 and note 2. 

Mongols, the, overthrow the Abbasid caliph- 
ate, 381, 485; their life and culture, 483, 
484, 616 ; conquests of, 484, 485, 487-491. 

Montaigne (mun-tfin'), 603. 

Montcalm (moN-kalm'), 753, 754. 

Mon'te Cas-si'no, 354. 

Mon-te-ne'gro, 363, 493. 

Montfort, Simon de, 506. 

Montpellier (moN-pe-lya'), university of, 
570. 

Montreal, 750, 754. 

Moors, the, 519 and note 1, 520, 521. 

Morality plays, 383, 384. 

Mo-ra'vi-a, 360. 

More, Sir Thomas, 613, 660. 

Mo-re'a, the, 546. note 1. 

Morris dance, the, 582. 

Morte d' Arthur (mort'-dar-tiir'), the, 560, 
595. 

Mosaics, 330, 456. 

Moscow (mos'ko), 336, 488, 490, 491. 

Mos'lems, the, defeated by Charles Martel 
at Tours, 306, 314 ; Charlemagne's wars 
with, 309 ; in southern France, Italy, and 
Sicily, 314, 317, 412 ; meaning of the name 
"Moslem," 371, note 2; during the cru- 
sades, 466-481. 

Mosques, 374, 384, 386, 471. 

Mosul (mo-8ool'), 480. 

Mu-ez'zin, 374. 

Mumming and mummers' plays, 582. 
Munster, 714. 

Mus'co-vy, principality of, 490, 491. 
Music, Renaissance, 599. 600. 
Mythology, Scandinavian, 394-396. 

Nantes (Fr. pron. niiNt), Edict of, 681, 695, 
696, 722, 738. 
Napier, 723. 
Naples, 302, 413. 
Naseby, battle of, 712. 

Nationality, rise of, in Europe, 496, 497, 511, 
518, 520, 525. 

Navarre (nd-viir'), kingdom of, 520, 681 and 
note 1. 

Navigation Acts, the, 745, 746. 

Navy, Venetian, 547 ; Spanish and English, 

678, 679 ; French, 682. 
Nes-to'ri-ans, the, 347, 616. 
Nestorius, 347. 

Netherlands, the, condition of, in the Middle 
Ages, 549, 671 ; Protestantism in, 657, 668, 
671; revolt of, 671-674; efforts of Louis 



XIV to annex, 698, 699; the Austrian, 
701. 

New England, colonization of, 730-733 ; John 
Smith's map of, 732; population of, 738; 
religious conditions in, 739, 740 ; educational 
system of, 741 ; economic conditions in, 742, 
743, 745 ; representative institutions in, 746, 
747 ; town government of, 748 ; Confedera- 
tion of, 749. 

Newfoundland, 399, 728, 753, 754. • 

New France, 726, 751, 752, 754. 

New Hampshire, 784 and note 1. 

New Haven, colony of, 749. 

New Jersey, 736, 739. 

New Mexico, 635. 

" New Model," the, 712. 

New Netherland, 736. T 

New Orleans, 751 and notel. 

Newspapers, appearance of, 722. 

New Sweden, 736, 787. 

New Testament, the, 600, 601 and note 1. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 723. 

New York, 734 and note 1, 736, 738, 748, 
740, 747. 

Niagara, Fort, 754. 

Nihelungenlied (ne'be-loong-en-let), the, 
560, 561. 

Nicaea (nl-se'a), Council of, 468. 
Nicene Creed, the, 849. 
Nie'men River, 526. 

Nijni-Novgorod (nyez'nye nov'go-rot), 539. 

Nobility, feudal, 416-419, 690, 691. 

Nonconformists. See Dissenters. 

Normandy, 402, 403, 411, 512, 514. 

Normans, the, settle in France, 402, 403; 
conquer England, 407, 408, 410 ; results of 
the Norman Conquest, 410-412 ; conquer 
southern Italy and Sicily, 412, 413 ; in- 
fluence of, on European history, 413, 414, 
590, 591 ; as crusaders, 468, 470. 

North Cape, 399. 

North Carolina, 639. 

Northmen, inroads of the, 314, 397, 398; 
their home, 389, 890 ; in prehistoric times, 
390, 391 ; the Viking Age, 891-393 ; in the 
West, 397-399; in the East, 399-401; in 
Germany and France, 402, 408 ; in England, 
403, 404, 406, 407. 

Nor-thum'bri-a, kingdom of, 320, 324. 
Northwest Passage, search for the, 689. 
Norway, 814, 890, 396, 397, 656. 
Norwegians, converted to Chiistianity, 360, 
396. 

Nova Scotia, 399,^638, 736, 753. 
Novgorod (nov'go-rot), 400, 490, 548. 
Numerals, the "Arabic," 385; the Roman, 
566. 

Nuncios (nun'shi-oz), papal, 454. 
Nu'rem-berg, 532, note 1, 548, 625. 

"Oath-helpers," 420.' 
Oath-swearing, 419, 420. 
O'ber-Am'mer-gau, Passion Play at, 383, 
note 1. 

O'der River, 526. 
O'din, 359, 394, 395. 

O-do-a'cer, conquered by Theodoric, 298, 
299. 

Oglethorpe, James, 787. 

Ogres, 577. 

O'laf the Saint, 896. 

Omar, second caUph, 379 ; mosque of, 471. 
Omar Khayyam (6'mar Ki-yam'), 385. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 771 



Ommiads (d-mi'adz), dynasty of the, 380 and 
note 1. 
Ordeals, 420. 

Orders of Greek architecture, 597. 
O-ri-no'co River, 627, 635. 
Ork'ney Islands, 398. 

Orleans (6r-la-aN'), city, 512, 513 ; university 
of, 570 ; Due de, 751, note 1. 
Or'muz, 622. 

Os'tro-goths, the, invade Italy, 298; under 
Theodoric, 299, 300 ; conquered by Justin- 
ian, 300, 330 ; become Catholic Christians, 
358. 

Othman, third caliph, 379 ; Ottoman chief- 
tain, 491 and note 2. 

Otto I, the Great, 316-318, 359, 456, 522. 

Ot'to-man Turks, the, rise and spread of, 
491 ; the Janizaries, 491, 492 ; siege and 
capture of Constantinople by, 492, 493 ; in 
southeastern Europe, 493, 495; their con- 
trol of Asiatic trade routes, 540, 545, 622 ; 
defeated at the battle of Lepanto, 669. 

Oxford, university of, 567, 569, 570. 

Oxus River, 377. 

Pacific Ocean, the, discovery of, 629. 

Pad'u-a, university of, 570. 

Painting, Byzantine, 330 ; Italian, in the 

Middle Ages, 330, 598; Renaissance, 598, 

599, 601 and note 2. 
Palatinate Rhenish, 700, 738. 
Pa-ler'mo, 413. 

Palestrina (pa-las-tre'na), 599, 600. 

Pal'li-ivm, the, 448, 454. 

Panama, 634. 

Pan'the-on, the, 597. 

Papacy. See Roman Church. 

Paper, use of, 382, 594. 

Paradise Lost, Milton's, 724. 

Paris, sacked by the Northmen, 402 ; be- 
comes capital of France, 514 ; university of, 
567, 669, 570 ; Peace of, 754. 

Parishes, church, 446, 447. 

Parliament, English, in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, 505-507 ; under the Tudors, 518, 519, 
703 ; under James I and Charles I, 704-706, 
710 ; reforms of the Long, 710, 733 ; the 
Rump, 713, 715, 745; under Charles II, 717, 
718, 719 ; under James II, 720 ; acts of, 720. 
721, 745, 746. 

Parties, rise of, in Parliament, 719 and note 2, 
720. 

Patriarchate, development of the, 343, 361, 
362. 

Paul III, pope, 665, 667. 

Pavia (pa-ve'a), capital of Lombardy, 302, 

309 ; university of, 626. 
*' Peace of God," the, 423. 
Peasants, medieval, 433-436, 611-613. 
Peasants' Rebellion, the, 611. 
Peking (pe-king'), 488, 616. 
Penn, William, 736, 737. 
Pennsylvania, 736, 738, ,739, 740, 743, 745, 

747 and note 3. 

Pen'te-cost. See "Whitsunday. 
Pepin (pep'in) the Short, king of the Franks, 
306, 307, 359, 379. 

Perrault (pe-ro'), Charles, 576,^note 1, 696. 

Persecution of heretics, 344, 647-650. 

Persia, conflict between, and the Roman Em- 
pire in the East, 332, 333 ; conquered by the 
Arabs, 376: overrun by the Mongols, 
485. 



Peru, the Inca power in, 632, 633 ; con- 
quered by the Spaniards, 634, 635. 
Peter the Hermit, 470, 472. 

Petition of Right, the," 705, 706, 717, 720. 
Petrarch (pe'trark), 592, .593, 596, 600, 602. 
Petrine supremacy, doctrine of the, 349, 350. 
Petrograd (pe'tro-grad), 336. 
Philip II, Augustus, "king of France, 461, 

475, 476, 502, 513, 514 ; IV, the Fair, 514, 

515, 644, 645 ; VI, 515, 516. 
Philip II. king of Spain, 661, 668-670, 672- 

674, 677, 678, 680, 697; V, 700, 701. 
Philippine Islands, the, 630, 635, note 2, 666. 
Philosophy, scholastic, 570-572, 606, 609. 
Piers Plowman, 612, 613. 
Pilgrimages, Mohammedan, to Mecca, 374; 

Christian, 441, 466, 467, 652. 
Pilgrims, the, 731, 732, 739. 
Pilgrim's Progress, Bunvau's, 724. 
Piracy in the Middle Ages", 539, 549. 
Pisa (pe'sa), 544. 

Pizarro (Span. pron. pe-thar'ro), Francisco, 
634. 

Plagues, medieval, 610, 611, 686. 
Plan-tag'e-net dynasty, the, 500 and note 1. 
Plato, 624. 
Playing cards, 580. 

Plymouth, settlement of, 731-733, 734, 749. 
Plymouth Company, the, 729, 733. 
Po, river, 302, 543. 

Poetry, Arabic, 885 ; medieval, 558-561 ; 
Renaissance, 591, 592, 602, 605. 
Poitiers (pwa-tya'), battle of, 516, 517. 
Poland, 360, 489, 490, 666. 
Polo, game, 580. 

Polos, the, in the Far East, 487, 488, 616, 

618, 626. 
Pom-e-ra'ni-a, 526. 
Pon'ti-fex Max'i-mus, the title, 364. 
Poor Richard's Almanac, 738, 739. 
" Poor whites," the, 744, 748. 
Pope, the, as the successor of St. Peter, 350 ; 

origin of the name, 453 and note 1 ; as the 

head of western Christendom, 453-455. 
Population, of England in the seventeenth 

century, 721 ; of the thirteen colonies, 737, 

744. 

Por-to-la'ni, the, 619. 

Portugal, rise of, 520; becomes a colonial 
power, 622, 623 and note 1 ; union of, with 
Spain, 669, 670, 679; in the War of the 
Spanish Succession, 701. 

Potato introduced into Europe, 641. 

Potosi (po-to-se'), silver mines of, 640. 

Prague (Ger. pron. prag), university of, 
569, 650. 

Praise of Folly, the, 647. 
Pres'by-ter, church official, 664. 
Presbyterian churches, 664, note 1, 703, 712, 
714, 715, 718, 739. 
Prester John, legend of, 616. 
" Pride's Purge," 712. 

Priesthood, Christian, 342-344, 363, 446-448. 
Primogeniture, 417 and note 1, 742. 
Prince, the, by Macchiavelli, 602. 
Printing, invention of, 594, 595 ; incunabula, 

596 ; importance of, 596, 597, 607, 637, 653. 
Protective system, the, adopted by Colbert, 

695. 

Protectorate, the, England under, 717. 
Protestants, origin of the name, 655 ; sects 
of, 662-664, 704, 705, 712, 739. 



772 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Protestant Episcopal Cliurch, the, 739. 
Proven gal (pro-vaN-sal') speech, 555, 558. 
Provence (pro-vaNs'), 470, 519, 555. 
Providence Plantation, 740. 
Prussia, 526, 696, 702. See also Branden- 
burg. 

Prussians, converted to Christianity, 360, 
526. 

Ptolemaic system, the, 608. 
Ptolemy, Greek scientist, 383, 608, 624 and 
note 4, 626. 

Pur'ga-to-ry, belief in, 443, 444, 652. 

Puritans, the, rise of, 704, 705 ; persecuted by 
Laud, 707, 733 ; rdivide into Presbyterians 
and Independents, 712 ; reaction against, 
718; during the reign of Charles II, 718; 
establish themselves in Massachusetts, 733, 
739 ; intolerance of, 740. 

Puritan Kevolution, the, 710-713, 717. 

Pym, John, 710, 711. 

Pyr'e-nees Mountains, 303, 309. 

Quakers, the, 718, 736, 740. 
Quebec, 750, 754. 

" Queen Anne's War," 701, note'2, 752, note 1. 

Raleigh (ro'li). Sir Walter, 639, 679, 728. 

Ram^a-dan' , 374. 

Eaphael (raf'a-el), 599. 

Ea-ven'na, 298, 299, 300, 302, 306, 336. 

Raymond of Toulouse, Count, 470. 

Reformation, the, preparation for, 643-650 ; 
in Germany, 651-656 ; in Scandinavia, 656 ; 
in Switzerland, 656, 657; in the British 
Isles, 658-661, 675, 676 ; the Protestant sects, 
662-664 ; the Catholic Counter, 665-668 ; in 
the Netherlands, 671, 672 ; in France, 679- 
681 ; influence of, on doctrine of divine right, 
689. 

Regulated companies, 727. 

Reims (remz), 304, 517. 

Relics in the Middle Ages, 443. 

"Relief," the feudal, 418. 

Religion : the Christian Church in the East 
and in the West, during the early Middle 
Ages, 342-365 ; Arabian heathenism, 369 ; 
Islam, 372-375, 386-388 ; Scandinavian hea- 
thenism, 394-396 ; the Papacy and the Holy 
Roman Empire, 439-464 ; the Reformation, 
643-686. See also Future life. 

Renaissance (re-na'sans), the, meaning of the 

; term, 589 ; period included within, 589 ; 
origin of, in Italy, 589-591 ; as a revival 
of learning, 591-594, 600-601 ; as an artistic 
revival, 597-601; in hterature, 602-605; in 
education, 606, 607 ; in science, 607-609 ; 
economic aspects of, 609-613; the geo- 
graphical, 614 ; interest of the popes in, 646. 

Representation, 506, 507, 514, 515, 746, 747. 

Restitution, Edict of, 683, 685. 

Restoration, the, in England, 717, 718. 

Revenues of the medieval Church, 454, 

Reynard (ra'nard) the Fox, 561. 

Rhine River, 303, 308, 402, 685, 698. 

Rhode Island, 734, 739, 740, 747. 

Rhodes (rodz), island, 479, 546. 

Rhone River, 313. 

Rhyme, use of, as a poetic device, 558, 559. 
Ri-al'to Bridge of Venice, 547. 
Richard I, king of England, 475, 476, 502 ; II, 
611, 612, 650. 

Richelieu (re-she-lyii'), Cardinal, 681, 684, 685, 
690, 691, 694, 697, 698, 750. 



Robin Hood, ballads of, 561. 

Ro'land, Song of, 309, note 1, 559, 560. 

Rollo, 402, 403. 

Romance (ro-mans') languages, 332, 555, 592. 

Romances, the Arthurian, 560. 

Roman Catholics, disabihties of, in Ireland, 

England, and the thu-teen colonies, 714, 721, 

734, 740. 

Roman Church, the, missionary activity of, 
in the early Middle Ages, 302, 304. 316, 322- 
325, 358-360, 396 ; relations of, with Clovis, 
Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, and Otto the 
Great, 305, 306, 307, 311, 317, 319 ; rise and 
growth of the Papacy, 348-352 ; schism be- 
tween, and the Greek Church, 360-363 ; 
compared with the Greek Church, 363 ; as 
heir of the Roman Empire, 364, 365 ; charac- 
teristics of, in the Middle Ages, 439, 440 ; 
doctrines and worship of, 440-444 ; juris- 
diction of, 444-446 ; the secular clergy, 
446-448 ; the regular clergy, 448-453 ; 
power of the medieval Papacy, 453-455 ; 
contest between the Papacy and the Em- 
pire, 455-463 ; significance of, in the Middle 
Ages, 463, 464 ; decline of, in the fourteenth 
and fifteenth centuries, 643-647 ; heresies 
and heretics, 647-650; the Protestant Ref- 
ormation, 651-664 ; the Counter Reforma- 
tion, 665-668 ; the religious wars, 671-674, 
677-686. 

Romanesque architecture, 562, 563. 
Romanization, of the Ostrogoths, 299, 300 ; 

of the Lombards, 302 ; of the Franks, 303. 
Romans, the, fusion of, with the Germans, 

325, 326. 

Rome as the capital of the Papacy, 454, 455. 
Roncesvalles (Span. pron. ron-thes-val'yas), 
559, 560. 

Roses, War of the, 518. 

Rothenburg (ro'ten-boorx), 532,, note 1. 

Rotterdam, 600, 671. 

Rouen (roo-aN'), 403, note 2. 

" Roundheads," the, 711 and note 1, 

Royal Society, the, 723. 

Rubens, 724. 

Rubdiyat (roo-bl-yaf), the, of Omar Khay- 
yam, 385 and note 2. 
Ru'dolf of Hapsburg, 462, 522, 523. 
Rum (room), sultanate of, 468. 
Rumania, 363, 493. 
Runes, the, 390, 391. 
Run'ni-mede, 505. 
Ruric, 400. 

Russia, Swedish settlements in, 400 ; con- 
quered by the Mongols, 488-490 ; rise of 
Muscovy, 490, 491. 

Russians, attack Constantinople, 335, 401 ; 
converted to Christianity, 385, 360, 363, 401. 

Sabbath, Hebrew, 345, 705. 

Sacraments, the, 440-442, 664. 

Sagas, the, 392 and note 1, 393. 

St. Anthony (an'to-ni), 352. 

St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 680. 

St. Basil (baz'il), 353, 354. 

St. Benedict, 354, 355. 

St. Ber'nard, 449, 450, 474, 558, 565. 

St. Boniface, 359. 

St. Brandan, 625. 

St. Cyp'ri-an, 342. 

St. Dom'i-nic, 452. 

St. Francis, 451, 452. 

St. Ives, city, 538. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 773 



St. Jerome, 600. 

St. Mark, cathedral of, at Venice, 461, 547. 
St. Martin, church of, at Canterbury, 323. 
St. Patrick, 323. 

St. Paul, 34S ; cathedral of, 724. 

St Peter, 307, 324, 348, 350 ; church of, at 
Kome, 311, 455, 543, 597, 598, 651. 

St. Eemi (re-me'), 304. 

St-Simon (saN-se-moN'), Memoirs of, 697. 

Saints, reverence for, 443, 648. 

Sal'a-din, 474, 475, 476. 

Salamanca, university of, 570, 637. 

Salem, witchcraft delusion at, 579, 739. 

Sa-ler'no, city, 413 ; university of, 570. 

" Sal'ic law," the, 515 and note 1. 

Salisbury (s61z'ber-i), Oath of, 499; Cathe- 
dral of, 562. 

Samarkand (s^m-ar-kanf), 485, 487. 
Sanc'ta So-phi'a, church of, 331 and note 2, 
339, 340, 362, 401, 493. 
" Sanctuary," right of, 445. 
San Diego, 636. 
San Francisco, 636. 
Santa Barbara, mission of, 637. 
Santa Fe (san'ta fa'). 635. 
Sar'a-cens, 371, note 2. See also Moslems. 
Sardinia, 330, 702. 
Satan, 373. 
Saturday, 345. 
Savoy, 702. 

Saxons. See Anglo-Saxons. 
Saxony, 303, 315, 359, 651. 
Scandinavia, geography of, 389 ; the Eeforma- 
tion in, 656. 

Scheldt (skelt) Pviver, 402. 

Schleswig (shlaz'viK), 315. 

Scholasticism, medieval, 570-572, 606, 609. 

Schools. See Education. 

Schwyz (shvets), canton of, 523. 

Science, Arab, 383, 384 ; medieval, 572-574 ; 

Kenaissance, 607-609 ; in England during 

the seventeenth century, 723. 
Scotch-Irish, the, 738. 

Scotland, Christianity introduced into, 323, 
325 ; the Northmen in, 398 ; formation of 
the Scottish kingdom, 509, 510 ; conquered 
by Edward I, 510, 511 ; becomes indepen- 
dent of England, 511 ; the Reformation in, 
657, 662, 676 ; united with England under 
James I, 703 : Charles I and, 708, 710 ; Crom- 
well and, 714, 715. 

Scots, the, 509 ; Mary, Queen of, 676. 

Sculpture, Renaissance, 597, 598, 601. 
Sea dogs," the Enghsh, 639, 677. 

Sea-power, Viking, 392 ; in the crusades, 
497; Turkish, 491, 669; Venetian, 547; 
English, 679. 

Sects, the Protestant, 662-664. 
Seine (san) River, 402. 

Seljuk (sel-jook') Turks, 333, 380, 467, 486, 
491. 

Sem'ites, the, original home of, 367. 

Sempach (zem'piiK), battle of, 524. 

Separatists, the name, 712, note 1 ; in Holland, 
731 ; found Plymouth, 731, 732. 

Serbia, 834, 335, 360, 363, 493. 

Serfdom, in the Middle Ages, 436, 437 ; atti- 
tude of the medieval Church toward, 463 ; 
absence of, in medieval cities, 531 ; decline' 
and abolition of, 610-612. 

Ser-ve'tus, Michael, 657, 664. 

" Seven liberal arts." the, 570. 

Sevigne (su-ven-ya'), Madame de, 696, 697. 



Se-ville', cathedral of, 543. 
Shakespeare, William, 604, 605, 689, 724. 
Shannon River, 714. 
Shet'land Islands, 398. 
"Ship-money," 706, 707, 710. 
Ships, Viking, 392 ; medieval, 547, 619. 
Siam (sT-am'), 618. 
Siberia, 483, 630. 

Sicily, a province of the Roman Empire in 
the East, 302 ; the Moslems in, 317, 413, 
590 ; Norman conquest of, 412, 413, 591 ; 
added to Savoy, 702. 

Sieges: Ravenna, 298; Constantinople, 339, 
note 1, 377, 477, 492, 493 ; Autioch, 471 ; 
Jerusalem, 472 ; Acre, 476 ; Zara, 477 ; 
Orleans, 517 ; Magdeburg, 684. 

Sieg'fried, 560, 561. _ 

Siei-ra Leone (si-er'd le-6'ne), 621. 

Si-le'si-a, 489. 

Sim'o-ny, 457 and note 2. 

Sistine Chapel, the, 598 and note 1. 

Slavery, Islam and, 387 ; decline of, in medi- 
eval Europe, 436, 437 ; attitude of the 
Church toward, 463 ; in the thirteen colonies, 
744. 

Slave trade, African, 744, 745. 

Slavs, wars of Charlemagne and Henry the 
Fowler with, 309, 314, 315 ; how divided, 
316, note 1 ; settle in southeastern Europe, 
334, 335 ; converted to Christianity, 335, 
359, 360, 401 ; the Germans and the, 525, 
526. 

Smith, Captain John, 730, 731, 782. 

Smyrna (smur'nd), 309. 

Society of Jesus. See Jesuits. 

Soissons (swa-soN'), battle of, 303. 

Som'er-set-shire, 404. 

Soto, Hernando de, 635. 

South Company of Sweden, 736. 

Spain, the Arabs in, 378, 379 ; physical and 
racial, 519 ; Christian states of, 519, 520 ; 
recovery of, from the Moors, 520, 521 ; under 
Ferdinand and Isabella, 521, 522; under 
Philip II, 668-670, cedes territories to 
France, 698, 700 ; in the War of the Spanish 
Succession, 700, 701 ; cedes Florida to 
England, 754. 

Spanish Succession, War of the, 700, 701. 
Spice Islands, 628, note 1, 629, 638. 
Spices, use of, in the Middle Ages, 587, 619, 
620. 

Stained glass, medieval, 845, 559, 565. 
Star Chamber, court of, 710. 
States of the Church, 306, 307 and note l, 
817, 454, 646. 

Stem-duchies, German, 315 and note 1, 316, 
317. 

Stephen II, pope, 306. 
Stourbridge Fair, 588, 539. 
Stratford, earl of, 706, 708, 710. 
Strassburg (shtras'bd&rK), 303, 304, 402, 
548. 

Stratford-on-Avon, 604, 605. 

Stuart dynasty, the, 703, 705, 717, 720. 

Sully (Fr. pron. sii-le'), 681. 

Sumatra (soo-ma'tni), 383, 623, note 1. 

Summa Tlieologice, the, of Aquinas, 572. 

Sundav, 845, 705, 718. 

Supers'titions of the Middle Ages, 575-579, 
739. 

Surgery, Arab, 384. 
Sussex, 320. 

Swa'bi-a, 315, note 1, 523. 



774 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 



Sweden, 389, 390, 396, 397, 656, 662, 684. 685, 
699, 736, 738. 

Swedes, converted to Christianity, 860, 896 ; 

in Finland and Riistia, 4<»0. 
Swiss Confederation, the, 523-525, 685. 
Switzerland, rise of, 314, 523 ; struggle of, 

with Austria, 528, 524 and note 1, 685 ; the 

Swiss Confederation, 523-525 ; the Eeforma- 

tion in, 656, 657. 

Syria, crusaders' states in, 472, 473, 475, 479. 

Tam-er-lane'. See Timur the Lame. 

Tancred (tarj'kred), 470, 472. 

Tarlk (ta'rik), 378. 

Tartars. See Tatars. 

Ta'tars, the, 490 and note 1. 

Taxation, royal, in the Middle Ages, 497, 499, 
505, 506, 507, 514, 515 ; Colbert's improve- 
ments in, 694. 

Tell, William, legend of, 524. 
Templars, order of, the, 473. 
Temple, the, at Jerusalem, 340. 
Teuochtitlan (ten-och-tet-lan'), 632. 
Ten Tribes of Israel, 616. 
Tetzel, 651. 

Teutonic Knights, the, 526. 
Teutonic languages, 555, 556, 
Teutons, the, 389. See also Germans, 
Thames (temz) Eiver, 404, 505. 
Thanksgiving Day, 738, 739. 
The-o-do'ra, 329. 

The-od'o-ric, king of the Ostrogoths, 298- 
800, 303. 

The-o-do'si-us the Great, 842, 844. 
Theses, Luther's ninety-five, 652. 
"Third estate," rise of the, 581. 
Thirteen colonies, the, established, 734-738 ; 

civilization of, 738-742 ; economic conditions 

in, 742-746 ; political conditions in, 746-749 ; 

after the Peace of Paris, 754. 
Thirty Years' War, the, 682-686, 690, 691, 

697, 698. 
Thor, 394, 395. 

Thousand and One Nights, the, 381, 385. 
Thu'nor. See Thor. 
Tibet (ti-bef), 484, 618. 
Ticonderoga, Fort, 754. 
Timur (ti-moor'), the Lame, conquests of, 
485, 487. 

Titian (tish'<in), 599. 
Tit-i-ca'ca, Lake, 688. 

Tobacco introduced into Europe, 641 ; culti- 
vation of, in Virginia, 730, 748. 

Toledo (Sp. pron. to-la'fho), 382. 

Toleration, religious, 344. 642, 647. 656, 664, 
674, 681, 685, 696, 707, 708, 718, 719, 721, 740, 
750. 

Toleration Act, the, 721, 740. 
Tolls in the Middle Ages, 539. 
Tombs: Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 299; 
Timur the Lame, 487. 
Tories, the, 719 and note 2. 
Toul, 698. 

Toulouse (too-lo5z'), 470. 
Tournament, the, 430. 
Tours (to5r), battle of, 806, 879. 
Tower of London, the, 425, note 1, 497, 498. 
Towns. See Cities. 
Township, the, New England, 748. 
Trade routes, medieval, 540, 620, 622 ; dis- 
covery of new, 622, 629, 640. 
Trading in medieval cities, 584, 585, 537-589. 
Transubstantiation, 442 and note 1. 



Treaties : Verdun, 812, 318 ; Mersen, 818 ; 
Augsburg, 656, 682, 688 ; Westphalia, 685, 
686, 690, 691 ; Utrecht, 701, 702, 758 : Paris, 
754. 

Trent, Council of, 667, 668. 
Trip'o-li, principality of, 472. 
Troubadours (troo'ba-doors), the, 558, 559. 
"Truce of God," the, 423. 
True Cross, the, 308, 321, 822, 475. 
Tsar (tsar), the title, 491, note 1. 
Tudor dynasty, the, 518, 703. 
Turenne (tii-ren'), 698. 
Tur-ke-stan', 483, 485. 
Turks. See Ottoman Turks, Seljuk Turks. 
"Twilight of the Gods," the, in Norse mythol- 
ogy, 895. 

Two Sicilies, kingdom of the, 418. 
Type, movable, 594, 595 ; kinds of, 596. 

Ulm (oolm), 548. 

Ulster, 714. 

Unitarians, the, 721. 

United Colonies of New England, 749. 

Union of Utrecht, 673. 

United Netherlands, the, formation of, 673 ; 

independence of, 674, 685. 
Universities, Arab, 888 ; medieval, 566-572 ; 

in Spanish America, 687 ; in the thirteen 

colonies, 741. 

Unlucky days, observance of, in the Middle 
Ages, 579. 

Unterwalden (oon-ter-val'dcn), canton of, 
528, 524. 

U'ral Mountains, 490. 
Ur'ban II, pope, 469, 477 ; VI, 645. 
Uri (oo'ri), canton of, 523, 524. 
" Usury," medieval prejudice against, 542. 
TJ-to'pi-a, the, by More, 613. 
Utrecht (u'trekt), city, 671 ; union of, 678; 
Peace of, 701, 702, 753. 

Val-hal'la, 395 and note 1, 396. 
Val-kyr'ies, the, 395 and note 2. 
Vandals, the, conquered by Behsarius, 380 ; 
become Catholic Christians, 858. 
Van Dyck, 724, 
Vassalage, 417, 418. 

Vatican, Palace, 455, 598, 599 ; Library, 594. 
Vauban (vo-baN'), 698. 
Vaulting, 563, 564. 

Venice, participation of, in the Fourth Cru- 
sade, 477, 546 ; as a commercial metropolis, 
545, 546 ; possessions of, 546, 547 ; de- 
scribed, 547; decline of, as a commercial 
metropolis, 622, 640; the Ottoman Turks 
and, 669. 

Verde (vurd), Cape, 620. 
Verdun (ver-duN'), Treaty of, 812-314 ; bish- 
opric of. 698. 

Vergil, Roman poet, 591, 605. 
Vermont, 734, note 1. 

Versailles (ver-sa'y'), court of Loui^XIV at, 
692, 701 ; palace of, 693, 696. 
Ve-sa'li-us, 608, 609. 
Vespucci (ves-poot'che), Amerigo, 628. 
Vienna, 522, 529. 

Vi'king, the name, 390 and note 2. See also 
Northmen, 

Viking Age, the, 891-398, 

Virginia, the Raleigh colonies in, 639 ; settle- 
ment of, 728-730 : one of the thirteen colo- 
nies, 780, 734, 739, 740, 742, 743, 744, 745, 
746. 



Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 775 



Vis'i-goths, the, their kingdom in Gaul an- 
nexed by the Franks, 303 ; become Catholic 
Christians, 358 ; their kingdom in Spain 
conquered bv the Arabs, 3Ts. 

Vis'tu-la Eiver, 359, 525, 526. 

Yittorino da Feltre (vet-to-re'no da fel'tra), 
606. 

Vlad'i-mir, 401. 
Yulgate, the, 600. 

Wal-den'ses, the, 64S, 649. 

Waldo, Peter, 648. 

Wales annexed to England, 508. 

Wallace, William, 510. 

Wallen stein (val'en-shtin), 683. 

WaUoons, the, 549. 

Wall paintings, 598, 599. 

Warfare, feudal, 421-423, 480; attitude of 

the Church toward, 423, 429 , 463, 468. See 

also Army. 

AYartburg "(vart'bdSrK), Luther at the, 653. 
Welsh, the name, 319, 508. 
Wentworth. See Strafford. 
Werewolves, 5T7. 
Wessex, kingdom of, 320, 403, 404. 
West Goths. See Yisigoths. 
West'min-ster, Abbev, 410, 595 ; Hall, 713. 
West-pha'li-a, Peace of, 685, 686, 690, 691. 
Whigs, 719 and note 2. 
Whitby, Svnod of, 324, 325. 
White Sea, 399. 
Whit'sun-day, 346. 

William I, the Conqueror, 407, 408, 410, 497- 
499 ; III, 701 and note 1, 720 and note 1, 734, 
752 

William the Silent, 673, 674, 700. 

William, Prince of Orange. See William III. 



Williams, Eoger, 740, 
Win'ches-ter, 406, 538. 
Windsor (win'zer) Castle, 501. 
AYinkelried (virj'kel-ret), Arnold von, 524, 
525. 

Winthrop, John, 733. 

Witchcraft, European, 577-579 ; at Salem, 
579, 739. 

" Witches' Sabbath," the, 578. 
Witenagemot (wit'e-na-ge-mot), 407 and 
note 1, 410, 506. 

Wittenberg (Ger. pron. vit'en-berK), 651, 
652, 653. 

Wo'den. See Odin. 
Wolfe, James, 754. 
Wolsey, Cardinal, 658. 
Women under Islam, 387. 
Wool trade, Flemish, 550. 
Workingmen. See Artisans. 
Worms (vorms). Concordat of, 459, 460; 
Diet of, 653 ; Edict of, 653, 6.55. 
Worship, development of Christian, 344, 345. 
Wren, Sir Christopher, 724. 
Writing. See Runes. 
Wycliffe (wik'lif), John, 649, 659. 

Xavier (zav'i-er), St. Francis, 667. 

York, city, 529 ; house of, 518. 
Ypres (e'pr'), 551. 
Yu-ca-tan', 631. 



Za'ra. 47 . 

Zoroastrians, 369, 376. 
Zurich (zoo'rik), 656. 

ZwingU (Ger. pron. tsving'le), 656, 661, 664. 



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